Between Custom and Empire: Kazakh Rulers Behavior during the Kalmyk Exodus of 1771

Research article

Abstract

The article examines nomadic strategic behavior in response to imperial practices of regulation and intervention. The key concept of the analysis is the political subjectivity of nomadic societies, manifested in a wide range of reactions—from loyalty and submission to selective cooperation, institutional adaptation, and resistance. The aim of this article is to demonstrate that during the Kalmyks' mass exodus to Dzungaria, the Kazakh rulers did not act in accordance with the expectations of the imperial administration, but were guided by their own interests and the logic of steppe diplomacy. The article argues that, despite formal assurances of loyalty to the Russian Empire, the actions of the Kishi Zhuz Kazakh rulers during the Kalmyks’ mass exodus from Russia were largely demonstrative. Rather than undertaking decisive military measures, they operated within the logic of steppe diplomacy—flexible, situational, and grounded in the exchange of gifts, the collection of trophies, and independent negotiation. At the same time, their behavior also revealed a strategic interest: the exodus of the Volga Kalmyks was beneficial to them, as it promised to rid them of a long-standing and dangerous neighbor. In previous studies, with the exception of M. Khodorkovsky, nomads in Russia were viewed solely as objects of imperial policy rather than as independent historical actors. Furthermore, the authors did not take into account the uniqueness of their political, economic, and social system. Unlike previous historiography, this article considers nomads as independent political actors who were able to transform imposed models of governance in accordance with their own interests and social practices. In addition, the article draws on a substantial body of archival documents, many of which are introduced into scholarly circulation for the first time. It also represents the first attempt to apply discourse analysis to this material—a method that makes it possible to uncover how nomads understood and articulated concepts such as space, subjecthood, and loyalty. The main result of the study is a rethinking of the approach to historical sources. It is important to recognize that archival documents produced by imperial military personnel and officials reflect less the actual actions of nomads than the authors’ own perceptions and interpretations of events. Adopting this perspective makes it possible to reconsider the behavior of historical actors—particularly nomads – beyond the confines of the imperial lens and to uncover the internal logic that guided their actions.