The Gumilyov Journal of History is an international, peer-reviewed scientific and historical journal that is open to all readers. The journal's stated mission is to become a leading creative hub that promotes research on all aspects of the history of Kazakhstan (Domestic History) and Eurasia in a broad sense, from the eastern to western margins. Main thematic areas of the journal: Archaeology, World History, National History. The journal welcomes articles that place these regions in a global context (World History). The journal was initially published until December 31, 2024, under the title “Bulletin of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Series: Historical Sciences. Philosophy. Religious Studies”, first published in 1995. The journal was established by Non-profit joint-stock company L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, a leading scientific and educational institution in Central Asia that has made significant contributions to advancing academic science, interdisciplinary research, and disseminating scientific knowledge. The university, named after the great Eurasian thinker Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov, upholds the traditions of in-depth historical analysis by integrating interdisciplinary research methods, scientific support, a solid methodological foundation, and access to extensive academic resources. The mission and objectives of the journal are to unite scholars working on relevant regional thematic areas, such as archaeology, historiography, source studies, ethnography, and ethnology, providing a platform to present the best theoretical, empirical, and analytical scientific works dedicated to the history of Kazakhstan and the Eurasian continent. The journal's brand is built upon an interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral synthesis, bringing together unique thematic areas in the study of history. The Gumilyov Journal of History is intended for professional historians, researchers, educators, graduate students, and undergraduates interested in historical processes within the Eurasia and beyond. The journal publishes original research articles, review papers, book reviews, archival studies, and analytical materials. The journal considers all manuscripts under the strict condition that the manuscript is the author's original work and does not duplicate any previously published works, including the author’s own prior publications. Founder and Publisher: Non-profit joint-stock company L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University 010008 Republic of Kazakhstan, Astana, Satpayev 2 Certificate of re-registration for Periodical Print Publication and/or News Agency No. KZ41VPY00111229, issued on January 31, 2025, by the Information Committee of the Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan. ISSN (Print) 3080-129Х ISSN (Online) 3080-6860 The history of renaming: Bulletin of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Series: Historical Sciences. Philosophy. Religious Studies – 1995-2024 гг. Gumilyov Journal of History – since 2025. Publication frequency: 4 times a year (March, June, September, December). The journal publishes articles in Kazakh, English, and Russian languages. It is included in the list of journals recommended by the Science and Higher Education Quality Assurance Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Online First — accepted articles are published on the website with full citation details, assigned DOI, and registered in the Crossref database (DOI remains unchanged after publication). A pre-publication version of the article is available for download in PDF format. Readers can access the article in the "Accepted for Publication" section of the website, and authors can reference it as part of their scientific work in official reports, just like a final published article.
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Chronology and cultural affiliation of the early burials of the Tazhegul burial ground
This paper introduces materials obtained during scientific research at the Tazhegul archaeological complex. The complex is located near the village of Abylaykhan in the Burabay district of the Akmola region. A topographic description of the valley is provided, which contains numerous sites from various periods – from the Early and Late Bronze Ages to the modern period. This paper aims to highlight the research findings on monuments dating back to the initial stage of the complex's formation. The methods and materials section describes the process and results of the study of two objects: stone enclosure No. 1 and a small extension to enclosure No. 2. The first site is located in the lower, northern part of the valley, while the second was discovered in the upper southern part, in the stratigraphic layer beneath the Kazakh Kystau. Radiocarbon dating of the sites yielded dates ranging from the 4th to the 3rd millennia BC. The literature review and discussion section provides a comparative typological analysis of similar sites studied in other regions of Kazakhstan. This allowed the authors to hypothesize about the unified processes of cultural genesis that occurred across much of Kazakhstan during the Early Bronze Age. The article focuses on Early Bronze Age sites in the Burabay mountain forest massif of Northern Kazakhstan, the materials from which are important for addressing certain issues concerning the origins of archaeological cultures of this period. New materials, the first ever discovered in the study area, reveal evidence of burial structures and a burial rite similar to the Yamnaya culture. The authors document and analyze cultural layers of different periods within the complex. Monuments with characteristics of the Yamnaya culture are overlain by a cultural layer of the Nura-Fyodorovo archaeological culture. This paper presents information on reliably identified sites of the Nura-Fyodorovo archaeological culture located near the Tazhygul complex. The discussion section provides a comparative analysis of the characteristic features of the Yamnaya archaeological culture and the Nura-Fyodorovo culture sites that succeeded it. In conclusion, the researchers formulate and express the concept that the formation of regional groups of the Nura-Fyodorovo culture could have occurred on the basis of the Yamnaya culture monuments.
Copyright (c) 2025 K. Auezov, S. Yarygin, S. Sakenov, G. Kulmagambetova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Transition from the Soviet Model of Museums to the Modern Kazakhstani Model: Historical and Cultural Analysis
The article is devoted to the historical and cultural analysis of the transformation of the museum sector of Kazakhstan in the post-Soviet period. The research aims to identify the key stages of the transition from the Soviet model of museums, focused on ideological representation and centralized management, to the modern Kazakh museum as an institution of cultural memory, identity and public history. For the first time, the institutional, substantive, and conceptual changes that have occurred since 1991 have been analyzed within the framework of a unified approach, as well as the factors that influenced the formation of a new museum paradigm in the context of independence. The article describes the Soviet museums, which were a strictly centralized system subordinate to government agencies and used as an instrument of ideological control. Their main function was to broadcast the official historical version corresponding to the party line. Historical events were presented through the prism of class struggle, socialist construction, and the cult of heroism, especially in relation to the revolution, the Civil War, and the Great Patriotic War. One of the central places in the study is occupied by the question of the representation of historical memory: how attitudes towards such topics as the Famine of 1932-1933, Stalin's repressions, the Alash movement, and the deportation of ethnic minorities have changed. These events were previously marginalized or hushed up, but today they are becoming part of the museum narrative, reinterpreted through the prism of national identity and cultural sovereignty. The study reveals that today museums are increasingly viewed as not only repositories of artifacts, but also as spaces of reflection and dialogue with the past. In addition, they perform educational, communicative and memorial functions, providing a connecting thread between generations. Their activities contribute to the formation of a stable historical culture based on a critical understanding of both heroic and tragic pages of the past. Through museum practices, collective work with traumatic experiences is carried out, which is especially important in a multinational society striving for consolidation. The article also details the current challenges of the museum industry: lack of funding, institutional instability, lack of qualified personnel, lagging behind international standards in the field of digitalization and curatorial practice. The initiatives of the state policy, including "Rukhani Zhangyru" and "Uly Dala Eli", are considered as attempts to update the museum infrastructure and the semantic agenda. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the systematic formulation of issues of identity, memory and cultural transformation through the museum context. The work can be useful for historians, cultural scientists, museologists and specialists in the field of humanitarian policy of the post-Soviet space.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ye. Ibrayev, G. Nurusheva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
All Union Censuses as resources for historical demographic research of urban population in 1950-1980-s
The results of All-Union censuses’ analysis as sources of historical and demographic research are represented in the paper. The Censuses characterize different groups of the population at a particular time. They form a large set of statistical materials distributed in various thematic tables. The sources of the paper are systematized into census tables submitted to the state archives, as well as statistical collections where the results of the censuses are presented in a concise form. The aim of the paper is to describe those census materials that are valuable for the research of demographic characteristics of the urban population. Internal criticism of sources and the method of comparative analysis are research methods. As a result, it is revealed that All-Union censuses with certain shortcomings included are generally an accurate statistical resource. However, the situation might be different for the population of individual republics and regions. The country's leadership insisted on hiding the information about the size and territorial location of certain categories of the population. The special census procedure was applied to military personnel, employees of local KGB bodies and employees of individual industrial enterprises, etc. Closed cities which population was also distributed across different regions of the country were not included into the census systematized tables. The author’s method for calculating the approximate size of population attributions, which requires Soviet-era statistics, and recalculations based on the results of the 2002 All-Russian Census is applied. Currently, most of the census materials can be easily found in central and regional archives and libraries. Certain difficulties occur while searching for some rarely found information that is obvious due to the fact that they have not yet been transferred to archives from departmental repositories. Thus, as a result of the analysis of statistical collections and tables, the census data relevant for the study of the urban population, their completeness and reliability are revealed in the paper for the first time. The specific features of publications of the results of different censuses are represented and the places of their storage are indicated. It gives an opportunity for scholars to introduce with the materials that can be a foundation for further description of the most important trends and patterns in the numerical, gender, age, social class, and national composition of the urban population in the 1950-s and 1980-s.
Copyright (c) 2025 O. Dashinamzhilov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
This article explores the ancient Turkic banner «urungu» («khorugv» or «gonfalon» type of banner) as a distinct form of military insignia among Turkic-Mongol peoples. On this type of military banner, the fly is attached to a horizontal crossbar, which hangs from the flagshaft. Depictions of such banners are often found on ancient Turkic monuments of art. The features of this type of military attribute in ancient Turkic culture have not yet been comprehensively examined in academic research, making this topic particularly relevant for the study of military insignia among medieval nomads. This study aims to investigate the use of this form of military banner during the ancient Turkic period. The subject of the research is the specific types and structural features of the urungu standard. Unfortunately, no physical examples of urungu banners from the ancient Turkic period have survived. Written sources on this type of military insignia among the Turks are also very limited. Therefore, the primary sources for this study are visual materials – foremost among them, artistic monuments created by the Turks and other Turkic-speaking tribes, as well as images of similar battle and religious banners from other Eastern and Western cultures. These include rock carvings, wall graffiti, images on numismatic and heraldic materials, as well as mural paintings of various kinds. Additional sources included written accounts, archaeological evidence, and material artifacts. The study also draws on previous research and publications related to petroglyphs of medieval nomads, which depict this type of banner. To determine the function, specific forms, and methods of use of this symbolic object, comparative data from analogous military insignia of other peoples were also employed. The research applies both general scientific and specialized methods from the fields of history and art history. Through comparison and correlation with similar materials and sources, the study identifies shared features, distinctive traits, and unique aspects of this particular form of ancient Turkic military insignia. The classification of urungu images into distinct types based on visual similarity follows a typological methodology. As a result of this comprehensive analysis, the study reconstructs various forms and types of this nomadic military symbol, examines their geographic distribution, and traces the history of their application. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the system of military symbolism among nomads and shed light on the functional specifics of these banners.
Copyright (c) 2026 K. Akhmetzhan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Soviet migration in the context of passportization in the early 1930s.
The purpose of the article is to study the traditional phenomenon of seasonal migration from the Russian villages, namely the temporary departure of rural residents from their permanent homes for work. In the 1920s and the first half of the 1930s, it underwent transformation aimed at establishing state control over labor migration, particularly from the village, and organizing the supply of workers to industry. The study shows that throughout the 1920s, the Soviet government attempted to limit the spontaneous movement of the rural population, seeing it as a reason for rising unemployment and worsening socio-economic conditions in cities. To combat unregulated movements within the country and to evenly provide the industry with labor, the state implemented a system of economic recruitment. However, by the late 1920s to 1930s, unemployment was replaced by a “staff shortage”, and the demand for labor first exceeded supply. This shift required the authorities to introduce new measures to ensure the growing industry had enough workforce. Therefore, before the beginning of the passportization campaign, two channels for hiring workforce from the village remained economic recruitment and seasonal migration, but for peasants who signed contracts with economic authorities, agricultural benefits were introduced to attract them to participate in the seasonal migration. Concurrently, due to the policy pursued by the Bolsheviks in the villages and the onset of famine, the problem of mass outflow of population from villages worsened. This led to disruptions in commodity supply, intensifying the housing crisis, and leading to an increase in criminal activity in cities. Administrative documentation often classified such migrants were also referred to as seasonal migrants, although they were not related to labor migration. In the context of the flight of peasants, the government took measures aimed at keeping village residents in the villages and socially cleansing cities by introducing passports - a kind of filter whose possession granted the right to reside in cities, especially in restricted areas. New documents were not issued to rural residents, which limited their mobility across the country. Now, to leave the village, a peasant was required to provide documents confirming their intention to engage in “socially useful labor” in production, institutions, schools; documents of this kind included a job invitation, a recruitment contract, a certificate from the collective farm's administration about the departure, etc. The introduction of the passport system effectively transformed seasonal migration from a spontaneous labor migration into a system of organized supply for the industrial sector, while mass movement from the village was prohibited under the threat of administrative and repressive measures against violators of the new regime.
Copyright (c) 2025 N. Potapova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Comparative analysis of the consequences of famine in Kazakhstan in the20-30 years of the 20th century: demographic aspect
This article is devoted to the study of historical and demographic aspects of famine in Kazakhstan at the beginning of the 20th century. During this period, there were two major famines in Kazakhstan in 1921-1923 and 1931-1933. In both cases, the victims of famine number in the millions. The aim of the work is a historical and comparative analysis of the demographic consequences of two famines with a difference of ten years. The comparative analysis of hunger with the use of archival documents, census materials and statistical data, as well as the application of the method of demographic analysis of the consequences of famines, the scale of damage, and their impact on the lives of the indigenous population of the republic, are defined as research tasks. In particular, the objectives of the study included the systematization of statistical data by measurement, by period, by age, by location, by quantitative and percentage ratios, the use of a comparative method of analyzing numbers and data, drawing up a picture of the demographic situation after the two famines of the 20th century, the analysis of numerical data presented in tables and statistical schemes. A feature of the research methodology is the systematization of statistical data for both cities in various dimensions and modules. The results of the study show that the use of a comparative method to study the demographic consequences of hunger contributes to an even deeper study of this topic. However, there were a number of difficulties in writing this article. These include the fact that the population of several regions and districts is not indicated, as well as general figures in censuses conducted several years after the famine years. There are some difficulties in the data designated as human losses, such as the ratio of their share in internal and external migration, the contradiction of information provided by local authorities with official statistical authorities, the identification of unregistered cases of morbidity (death from illness or starvation), and mortality. The results of the study consist of three parts. The first and second parts consider the historical, political, and demographic aspects of the famines of 1921-1923 and 1931-1933. The third part presents a comparative analysis of the demographic losses of the two famines. According to the results obtained, it turned out that during the famine years, Kazakhs showed the highest rate of human casualties in the republic. The results obtained through qualitative analysis using statistical data served as an empirical basis for compiling a more complete demographic picture of mass famine in the 20s-30s of the 20th century in Kazakhstan.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ye. Ustagaliyev, D. Aitmagambetov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
New data on the anthropology of the Turkic population of Zhetysu
The article examines the anthropological features of the Zhetysu Turkic population using the example of the Samsy monument located in the Zhambyl district of the Almaty region. According to the results of radiocarbon dating of C14 and analysis of funeral rites and tools, the early Turkic burials of the burial ground date back to the VIII-X centuries. The purpose of this study is to introduce new data on the anthropology of the Zhetysu Turkic population into scientific circulation and fill in the gaps in a little-studied area in the history of the region. The skeletal remains of people buried at the Samsy monument were processed at the Laboratory of Physical Anthropology of the Margulan Institute of Archeology in Almaty. The paper analyzes the morphological features of the skulls, dental system, and postcranial skeleton of individuals from the Samsy burial ground. For this purpose, measurements of skulls and elements of the postcranial skeleton were carried out using craniometric and osteometric programs. According to the results of craniological studies, it turned out that several anthropological types represent the people buried in this burial ground: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and mixed. Traces of unintentional artificial «beshik» deformation are recorded on several skulls. Such changes in the shape of the head are usually associated with prolonged lying of the child on the back in the cradle. Based on the study of the dental system of individuals, it is concluded that the odontological status of the early Zhetysu Turks is characterized as Caucasoid with the presence of East Asian Mongoloid elements. The diversity of the anthropological composition is observed among the Turkic population of Kazakhstan and nearby regions. According to the results of the intra-group analysis of postcrania, it can be noted that male skeletons belong to the «steppe» morphological type, characterized by medium or increased limb bone lengths and balanced proportions. This type was widespread in Eurasia in previous eras. The body length calculated by the size of the right femurs according to the method of K. Pearson and A. Lee averaged 166.9 cm, according to S. Dupertuis and D. Hadden 173.4 cm.
Copyright (c) 2025 R. Zhanuzak, K. Sikhymbaeva, A. Childebayeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Suez Canal: Geopolitical History and Military-Strategic Significance (second half of the XIXth - the first half of the XXth centuries
The processes of globalization that began in the 19th century brought the issue of shortening transportation routes to the forefront. As the continents converged, the idea of shortening sea routes through the creation of artificial canals gained significant attention. The Suez Canal is one of these geostrategic nodes. It is a crossroads of regional, national and international political and economic interests. It can be seen not just as a trade artery, but as a symbol connecting East and West. This article, within the framework of the paradigm of geo-history, analyzes the geopolitical factors and historical processes that determined the military-strategic importance of the Suez Canal in the 19th and 20th centuries. Based on archival documents, the study examines the historical events that served as prerequisites for the formation of the international legal regime of the Suez Canal. The construction of the canal is seen as an example of one of the first transnational projects implemented not by nation-states but by a private corporation founded by Ferdinand de Lesseps. This approach makes it possible to analyze the creation of the Suez Canal from the perspective of modern economic trends, where the primary influence comes not from individual states but from the financial power of transnational corporations. Special attention is given to the strategic significance of the canal and issues of maintaining its neutrality during World War I, the Ottoman Empire’s attempts to seize control of this strategic asset, and the interests of Italy and Germany in the Suez Canal during World War II. The study identifies the key motives and actions of the United Kingdom in the 1940s and 1950s aimed at preserving its positions in the Suez Canal region. The Suez Canal, which served as a vital communication route for the British Empire in the 19th century, continued to fulfill its function during the world wars, facilitating the passage of ships despite numerous threats and aerial bombardments. At the same time, the canal zone functioned as a defensive area and a crucial military base where Allied troops were trained. The construction of the canal was a significant factor in Egypt’s modernization along European lines. From the outset, the Suez Canal possessed enormous modernization potential, which was fully realized through military, educational, cultural, and economic reforms. Its construction played a crucial role in the development of global trade and economic relations and served as a key mechanism for geopolitical transformations.
Copyright (c) 2025 K. Baytureyeva, Zh. Turekulova, V. Sultanova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Resistance of the sharuas in the Semipalatinsk region during the period of forced modernization of aul (1929-1931)
The article analyzes the causes, driving forces, and consequences of peasant resistance during the forced modernization of the village in 1929-1931. The authors examine the political and socio-economic factors that led to the resistance of peasants, including forced collectivization, dekulakization, and the repressive measures of the Soviet authorities. The article explores the nature and excesses of agrarian policies, including the campaigns for the settlement of nomadic and semi-nomadic Kazakh households, meat and grain procurement campaigns, and the policy of eliminating wealthy farms. It is noted that the forced modernization of the late 1920s led to the destruction of traditional Kazakh society and provoked open discontent among peasants in the form of armed uprisings. However, the Soviet authorities, ignoring the people's grievances, viewed the protests of workers in rural centers and villages as actions of counter-revolutionary organizations and brutally suppressed them. Using the examples of the Shyngystau, Tolstoukhov, Abraly, and other uprisings in Eastern Kazakhstan, the article examines the forms of armed resistance, key participants, and tactics of opposing state structures, as well as the significance of popular resistance in the context of the socio-economic transformations of that period. Special attention is given to the authorities’ response, the use of punitive measures, and the consequences of suppressing the uprisings. The study concludes that peasant resistance was a reaction to radical transformations that disrupted the traditional way of life of the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations. The research is based on archival sources stored in Kazakhstan’s state archives, including the State Archive of the Abai Region, the State Archive of the East Kazakhstan Region, the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and the Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Additionally, the article utilizes published documentary materials from the State Commission for the Full Rehabilitation of Victims of Political Repressions.
Copyright (c) 2025 K. Baisarina, M. Karibayev, M. Turlybayev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Periodical press of the Turkestan region as a source for studying the history of Kazakhstan at the beginning of the ХХ century
The purpose of our article is to present a historical reconstruction of the change in the lifestyle of Kazakhs in the frontier space of Kazakhstan at the beginning of the XX century based on materials from the periodical press of the Turkestan region. The spatial phenomenon of the frontier implies a borderline mobile space that is unstable, and the imperial power is not yet influential enough. The first stage of the research involved studying the history of periodicals. The study took into account: outdated terminology; and the presence of headings with a different semantic load. In the process of work, all publications were grouped into thematic sections that were most relevant for the research: reforms, the resettlement issue, the land crisis; the electoral system; education; and events in Semirechye in 1916. Results: The periodical press is most closely connected with the problems of Kazakh society because it is close to current events. Newspaper articles have an unconventional view of the problem, sometimes different from public opinion, which causes harsh criticism. Newspaper materials can be conditionally divided into publications that are informational or analytical. The newspapers record the most interesting facts and topical events of Kazakh society. The analysis of the periodical press deserves a full review, rather than a selective one because the information of interest was not distributed evenly across the newspapers. Newspaper publications require critical analysis because correspondence has always carried a certain subjective assessment of events by the author. In the frontier space, a process of mutual influence of cultures, economic and trade relations of the Kazakh population, settlers, and representatives of the administration of the Turkestan region takes place. There is a forced adaptation of the Kazakh population to the new conditions that have arisen and the integration of the Kazakh steppe and the Turkestan region into the Russian Empire. The establishment of new social institutions of power in the Kazakh steppe is taking place, and the penetration of culture and law into Kazakh society is similar to those that existed in the Russian Empire. A wave of protest is growing against: resettlement, land relations, and elections of judges. The number of people dissatisfied with education In Russian-Kazakh schools is increasing, where imperial policies were observed so that students would forget their native language, thereby destroying national individuality.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Ksenzhik https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The goal of this paper is to explore Turkish Eurasianism, ascertaining and analyzing diverse types and concepts of Eurasianism in Türkiye. The objectives of the study are to examine theoretical, conceptual, and ideological origins and foundations of various types of Eurasianism in Türkiye and look into how they influence foreign policy course of Ankara, particularly in diverting the country away from the traditional unidimensional pro-Western Kemalist orientation and drifting it towards Eurasia by cultivating closer rapprochement and forging a strategic alliance with leading powers of the continent. The relevance and novelty of the topic are reflected in the in-depth critical analyses of the pertinent sources as well as in identifying the character and peculiarities of Eurasianist discourses in Türkiye. The results of the study have demonstrated that although Turkish Eurasianists are not a united political force and are not unanimous in foreign policy matters, to a certain degree they tend to exhibit anti-imperialist, anti-Western and counter-hegemonic attitudes. Adhering to anti-Western and more autonomous foreign policy course, Turkish Eurasianists tend to give a top priority for Ankara’s strategic independence from the West and its closer rapprochement with Russia, China, Turkic states and other countries in Greater Eurasia. Despite their ardent support and advocacy for a greater autonomy from the West and reorienting the country to Greater Eurasia, as domestic political movements they are rather marginal, holding limited sway over Türkiye’s internal and external policy. Therefore, to have a voice and a meaningful influence over Türkiye’s foreign policy course, Turkish Eurasianists are periodically forced to ally themselves with powerful political parties such as Erdoğan’s AK Party (AKP). Although Turkish Eurasianists consistently advocate for reorienting Türkiye to Eurasia, Ankara’s foreign policy is mostly determined by pragmatic approaches. From this perspective, although after the collapse of the bi-polar world order Türkiye has increasingly sought to cultivate a balanced international policy as a ‘middle power’, the nation’s full disengagement from the Western strategic security system has never been a priority for Türkiye. As Ankara is deeply integrated and embedded within the policy and security system of the West since the inception of the Cold War, Turkish policymakers have emphasized the strategic partnership with the Transatlantic alliance system, focusing on EU membership.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Zhumatay, A. Yskak, Ya. Sari https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Phenomenon of “Tekke” in the Context of the Spiritual and Cultural Identity of Turkic-Muslim Peoples (Mid 19th – Early 20th Century)
This study explores the significance of Anatolian tekkes as pivotal spiritual and religious institutions that profoundly influenced the Islamic identity of Turkic communities in Central Asia. It draws upon an in-depth analysis of Eastern archival records and manuscript traditions, shedding light on the processes of collecting, safeguarding, and interpreting Islamic manuscripts. A central focus is placed on the role of tekkes in pilgrimage, Islamic scholarship, and the broader cultural-religious development of Turkic societies. Historical accounts underscore the profound connection between manuscript traditions and the operations of tekkes, which functioned as depositories, transcription centers, and distribution points for theological discourse, philosophical essays, and literary works rooted in Islamic thought. Notably, tekkes were not confined to religious functions; they also acted as cultural nexuses, bridging diverse regions and fostering spiritual unity within the Turkic-Muslim sphere. Within this framework, particular attention is given to Uzbek tekkes in Istanbul, which emerged as focal sites of religious convergence for Central Asian pilgrims while also serving as conduits for the dissemination of Islamic knowledge and devotional practices. The theoretical foundation of this research is based on cultural archival studies and historical-cultural analysis, which regard manuscripts as integral elements of collective memory, ensuring the transmission of religious doctrines and spiritual customs. Methodologically, the study employs a comparative-historical approach, textual scrutiny of archival sources, and an examination of the socio-political, ethno-religious, and cultural dimensions of tekkes. Special emphasis is placed on Uzbek dervish tekkes within the Ottoman Empire, their involvement in pilgrimage networks, and their instrumental role in spreading Sufi traditions among Turkic populations. The evaluation of primary sources reveals that Uzbek tekkes in Istanbul functioned not only as centers for spiritual education but also as arenas for social engagement, reinforcing Islamic communal identity. The manuscripts preserved and composed in these tekkes were more than revered texts; they were dynamic instruments of religious instruction that embedded Islamic thought within the community. On a broader scale, tekkes operated as crucial spiritual institutions that facilitated the transmission of knowledge and upheld cultural-religious continuity among the Turkic-Muslim communities of the Russian Empire from the mid-19th to early 20th centuries. The findings substantiate that Uzbek tekkes in Anatolia played a fundamental role in reshaping religious and educational practices, particularly amid the socio-political turbulence of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Their contributions to Islamic pedagogy and intercultural dialogue emphasize the necessity for further exploration of their manuscript legacy, offering deeper insights into the religious and ethno-cultural dynamics of the Turkic world.
Copyright (c) 2025 M. Egamberdiyev, A. Azmukhanova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The work represents Turkic civilization. (Review of Zhavansir Feyziyev. 5-volume work “Turkic World”. ‒ Almaty: Almaty-Print. 2019)
Copyright (c) 2025 Kh. Tursun, A. Sundetova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Monetary Reform of 1947 through the Perspective of Chinese Diplomats from Novosibirsk
The paper is devoted to the Soviet monetary reform of 1947 in the context of analyzing its consequences for foreign citizens and diplomatic missions. On December 14, 1947, the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) adopted a resolution on the implementation of the monetary reform and the abolition of ration cards for food and industrial goods. The reform was aimed at eliminating the disproportion between the excess money supply generated by the emission for military expenses and the supply of goods, largely by confiscating savings from the population by establishing an unfavorable exchange rate. The purpose of the article is to show the impact of the monetary reform of 1947 on foreign diplomatic missions accredited in the USSR using the example of the interaction of the Consulate General of China in Novosibirsk with the Soviet authorities. The article examines a conflict situation between a branch of the State Bank and the Chinese consulate regarding the revaluation of a ruble deposit following the reform. The choice by the Soviet side of the countries for which exceptions were made, in the opinion of the Chinese side, was unjustified; moreover, the USSR and the Republic of China positioned each other as friendly countries. This circumstance was presented by the Chinese side as a political argument allowing them to count on privileged conditions for the conversion of the ruble account. The article publishes the correspondence between the Consulate and the head of the Novosibirsk executive authority and the decree of the USSR government “On the procedure for exchanging money for diplomatic missions in the USSR in connection with the ongoing monetary reform and the abolition of the card system” dated December 14, 1947, which is being introduced into scientific community for the first time. The documents were deposited in the State Archives of Novosibirsk in the fund of the Novosibirsk City Council. It is concluded that the strategies and practices of foreign diplomatic representatives in the context of confiscatory reform turned out to be similar to the financial attitudes and behavior of part of the country's population and party-Soviet elites aimed at preserving savings.
Copyright (c) 2025 N. Ablazhey, A. Farmanchuk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
«Secrets of ancient jewelry: regional jewelry heritage» based on the materials of the Foundation of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan
The article presents information about the jewelry of the Kazakh people based on the analysis of the collection of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Jewelry, being an important component of the material culture of the Kazakhs, reflects not only aesthetic ideas but also craft traditions, as well as socio-cultural characteristics of the population. Jewelry, being one of the most stable and conservative elements of a traditional costume, carries not only valuable, but often "dumb" information. This work is devoted to the publication and primary analysis of women's metal jewelry of the 19th-20th centuries. The work is the first stage of a comprehensive study aimed at studying the regional features of jewelry and identifying parallels between archaeological materials from the Bronze Age, the Early Iron Age, and the Early Middle Ages with products dating back to Modern Times. The relevance of the research is due to the need to preserve and systematize the accumulated information about the traditional forms of decorative and applied art of the Kazakh people. In the current conditions of globalization and unification of cultures, the detailed significance of regional variations is of particular importance. In the course of the research, special attention was paid to the study of the books of receipts, which are documentary materials documenting the history of the collection's formation. The use of these data made it possible to clarify the origin of a number of products, to identify the geography and features of the acquisition of museum collections. Based on the information collected, the article provides generalized statistical data, presents a classification of jewelry by category: head ornaments, neck and chest ornaments, hand ornaments, etc. For each category of jewelry received from the region we are interested in, one representative example has been selected, described in detail in terms of technology and ornamentation. Special attention is paid to the issues of symbolism and the functional purpose of jewelry. It was found that most of the products had not only a decorative value, but also carried a magical function. The jewelry was made of silver, which translates the value of this metal for the Kazakh people. The methodological basis of the article is semiotic and culturological approaches, as well as source studies, typological, and comparative historical research methods. The analysis of the stock collection of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan shows the stability of craft traditions and the continuity of artistic forms reflecting the cultural specifics of the region. The obtained materials can serve as a basis for further scientific research on the traditional jewelry art of Kazakhstan.
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Aitbayeva, K. Saparova, A. Sautbekova, A. Kumarbayeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Protest sentiments and survival strategies of the kazakh population in the 1929-1930s: behavioral motives and forms of resistance
This article examines the forms of social and political reaction of the Kazakh population to the policy of the Soviet government in the 1929-1930s. During this period, mass collectivization, dispossession of kulaks, forced settlement of nomads and strict tax policy were carried out, which led to significant changes in the traditional way of life of the Kazakhs. As aresult of increasing State pressure, many families were forced to leave their native lands and move to neighboring regions or abroad, mainly to China, Mongolia and CentralAsia. These mass migrations became the most vivid expression of passive, yet desperate, resistance. The concept of "otkochevka," traditionally used in Soviet terminology to denote seasonal movements of the nomadic population, was, in the period under study, employed to replace the notions of "flight" or "forced migration." This semantic substitution helped conceal the true scale of violence and the humanitarian catastrophe that accompanied the forced modernization and destruction of the traditional Kazakh way of life. The article analyzes the main reasons for the counterstand of the population, including the economic ruin of the population, mass starvation, and forced confiscation of property and violation of the rights of traditional society. The aim of the article is to research the behavioral motives of refugees are also considered, including the desire to protect the life and socio-cultural identity in conditions of strict state control. The state authorities interpreted the mass exodus of the population not just as a natural phenomenon, but as the result of inciting by the kulaks, the bais and counterrevolutionary elements. This served as the basis for strengthening punitive measures against the migrants. Based on archival data and historiographical analysis, the scale of migrations as a form of passive resistance, their socio-demographic consequences and impact on the further development of Kazakh society are investigated. The authors emphasize that mass migrations were a forced phenomenon caused not by class struggle, as claimed by Soviet propaganda, but by the desire of the population to survive in conditions of state terror. The disruption of the traditional way of life and state pressure in the form of forced sedentarization, collectivization, dekulakization, and grain procurement policies pushed the population to the brink of hunger and despair, forcing many to seek refuge beyond the borders of the Кepublic. The results obtained allow for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of society's adaptation to crisis situations and a revision of traditional approaches to the study of the socio-political history of Kazakhstan in the first half of the 20th century. Keywords: collectivization; repression; Semipalatinsk district; USPA (United State Political Administration); exaction; migration; behavioral motives; adaptation
Copyright (c) 2025 В. Atantayeva, R. Akhmetova, Т. Shcheglova, А. Bоtаbеkоvа https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Reconstructing the Biography of Noyon Ket-Buga of the Naiman Tribe
This article examines the identity of Noyon Ket-Buga of the Naiman tribe and his affiliation with a specific Chinggisid ulus. The narrative concerning the death of Chinggis Khan’s son Jochi, and the account of how Ket-Buga informed him of this event – preserved in Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Nogai folklore – emerged during the Golden Horde period. The most complete and earliest version of this story is the Nogai one. It displays direct parallels with the version found in Mirza Ulugh Beg’s Ulus-i Arba-yi Chingizi, which suggests that the author had access to a Golden Horde historical source. While this written source did not name the individual or his tribal affiliation, the consistent mention of Ket-Buga in all three folkloric versions, and his identification as a Naiman in the version most closely aligned with Ulugh Beg’s account (the Nogai version), supports the conclusion that there once existed a variant of the narrative in the Golden Horde wherein a Naiman named Ket-Buga informed Chinggis Khan of his eldest son's death. Genealogies of the Naiman indeed mention a figure named Ket-Buga, identified as either the son or grandson of the legendary tribal founder, Naiman. Based on generational estimates in various genealogies, this individual likely lived during the Golden Horde period. The only Ket-Buga of the Naiman tribe documented in written sources is the famous general who died in battle against the Mamluks of Sultan Qutuz at Ain Jalut in 1260. A central problem in identifying this military commander with the Ket-Buga of folklore and Naiman genealogies is that, according to Persian historians, this commander served under Hülegü. Given the deep hostility between Hülegü (a son of Tolui) and the Jochids – which led to war in the early 1260s – it is difficult to reconcile Ket-Buga’s association with Jochi, implied in the folklore, with his alleged loyalty to Hülegü. However, analysis of written sources reveals that the tradition of Ket-Buga as Hülegü’s loyal general was shaped by Ilkhanid historiography. These historians aimed to obscure the fact that Hülegü’s territories were initially intended to be a collective Chinggisid domain, with the Jochids enjoying a dominant role. Only through an alliance with Khubilai and the physical elimination of Jochid princes, their armies, and vassals during the winter of 1261–1262 did Hülegü secure full control over Iran, Iraq, and Anatolia, which thereafter became hereditary Ilkhanid territory. On the other hand, a report from the History of Herat, along with a number of indirect references, suggest that Ket-Buga was a noyon subordinate to the Jochids. Further supporting this interpretation is the fact that Noyon Baidar, who served under Ket-Buga’s command, was killed during the anti-Jochid purges of the winter of 1261–1262
Copyright (c) 2025 А. Porsin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Genesis of Kazakh jewelry art: history, development, and cultural influence
The article examines the evolution of Kazakh jewelry art from its early stages to the present day, emphasizing its historical roots, cultural continuity, and symbolic meaning. Jewelry traditions in Kazakhstan developed under the influence of historical processes, cultural exchanges, and religious beliefs. Particularly significant were the Scythian animal style and the Hun-Sarmatian polychrome style, which enriched artistic practices with zoomorphic, plant, and geometric motifs. Later, Islamic culture introduced new artistic directions and transformed the symbolic system of jewelry. The research is based on archaeological and ethnographic sources, as well as museum collections (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Central State Museum, Sh. Ualikhanov Museum “Altyn Emel,” and the State Reserve Museum “Esik”). Archaeological evidence includes golden artifacts from burial mounds in Esik, Katartobe 1, and Koktuma (Almaty region). Ethnographic materials reveal the technological features of jewelry-making, decorative compositions, and their symbolic functions. In Kazakh culture, jewelry has always been more than adornment. It served as a carrier of social status, spiritual values, and protective functions. Ornamental designs and animal images reflected the worldview of the people, their connection to nature, and their understanding of life and society. Retaining aesthetic expressiveness and philosophical depth, Kazakh jewelry art has preserved continuity across centuries, becoming a vital element of cultural heritage. Precious metals such as gold and silver have been known in Kazakhstan since ancient times. Archaeological finds indicate their use as early as the Bronze Age, when metallurgy reached a high level, enabling the creation of both utilitarian and decorative items. Jewelry and ritual objects from this period reflect the technological skill and artistic imagination of ancient peoples. Earrings, bracelets, rings, and diadems made of gold and silver, discovered at archaeological sites, testify to the dual role of jewelry as ornament and symbol of power, wealth, and spirituality. In funerary contexts, precious metal items played a ritual function, serving as protection for the deceased and as symbols of passage to the afterlife. Their use illustrates the deep interconnection of art, social structure, and spiritual beliefs. These practices, evolving over time, formed the foundation of a distinctive jewelry tradition that continues to hold cultural significance. Thus, Kazakh jewelry art embodies a synthesis of ancient artistic styles, technological achievements, and spiritual values, preserving its heritage while adapting to new cultural influences.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Bilyalova , A. Aitbaeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
«Beat the Communists»: the mood of the unemployed population of the Siberian region according to the OGPU of the USSR
In the 1920s, the Soviet state faced a very serious socio-economic phenomenon — mass unemployment, caused by a number of reasons. Throughout the 1920s, the number of unemployed people grew annually, and by the end of the period under review, it reached 1.7 million people. In 1929, the situation became even more acute due to the collectivisation that began in the country and, as a consequence, the aggravation of the food problem and another massive influx of peasants into the cities. By the end of the decade, unemployment had become stagnant. In 1927, the state took some measures that created obstacles for certain categories of the population in their search for work. The rejection of economic factors in regulating the labour market in favour of administrative methods, food, material, domestic and other difficulties turned the multimillion-dollar reserve army of labour into a disloyal group of people, which was characterised by protest behaviour, which became acute in certain regions of the USSR. In addition, according to OGPU employees, labour exchanges posed a particular danger, as they concentrated large crowds of people daily. To prevent various kinds of protests, the unemployed were under special attention of the OGPU bodies, whose responsibilities included, among other things, informing about the moods of people without work. For this purpose, the Chekists monthly compiled memorandums about the moods, statements, and ideas of this target group. This work introduces for the first time into scientific circulation an operational summary dated June 15, 1929, stored in the State Archive of the Novosibirsk Region in the fund of the Labour Department of the Executive Committee of the West Siberian Regional Council of Workers’, Peasants’, and Red Army Deputies. The purpose of the work is to show the moods and behaviour of the unemployed in the Siberian region in mid-1929, i.e., during the first five-year plan, when for the first time in the 1920s, the demand for labour exceeded its supply, but the problem was not overcome. Based on the memorandum, which provides rich material for study, an attempt is made to identify the spectrum of public moods, to consider the cumulative factors that influenced the formation of the moods and behaviour of the unemployed in the Siberian region. Due to the published memorandum, it is possible to analyse the attitude of the unemployed population towards the country’s leadership, towards the activities carried out in the country, including collectivisation, models of protest against the authorities, etc. It is concluded that the unfavourable situation of the unemployed, including the lack of food, the absence of jobs, earnings, the need for registration by labour exchanges, and reforms, led to various conflicts with labour exchange employees, clashes and fights with police officers, and riots. Among the people, ideas about uprisings against the Soviet authorities were popular, and calls for military struggle against the communists spread. Such moods in the Siberian region, according to the OGPU, were widespread.
Islam and the Oghuz in the Aral Region (on studies of the Jankent Settlement)
The work covers current issues of the historical period from the mid-7th to the mid-10th century. The article provides a brief historical overview of the period when the Oghuz state functioned, which played a key role in the process of Islamization of Turkic tribes throughout Central Asia and in the territory of modern Kazakhstan. The work aimed to demonstrate, using sources as an example, the processes of successful unification of ethnically diverse groups of nomadic and semi-nomadic populations, with different cultural and religious traditions, into a complex political structure. The territorial scope of the study covered a significant portion of these tribes, who settled and inhabited the fertile banks of the ancient Syr Darya River, moving from an exclusively nomadic way of life to a more sedentary, agricultural and trading activity. The discussion section of the work characterizes the geopolitical landscape of the region, which radically changed in 750 AD, when Arab troops defeated the Chinese armies, occupied many strategically important cities, and established strong Islamic rule in the territory of southern Kazakhstan. The paper demonstrates that this historical event marked a crucial turning point in the region's religious and cultural development, as vast territories came under the direct influence of Islam. The discussion section addresses questions regarding the integration of major urban centres in southern Kazakhstan and Semirechye into the broader Islamic ecumene, which contributed to the formation of distinct ethnoreligious communities. These groups, mostly composed of Turkic peoples who had converted to Islam, became known as "Turkmen" – literally meaning "Turk-like" – reflecting their special status as Islamic converts who retained their Turkic ethnicity and cultural characteristics. The authors also emphasize historical processes in their discussion that point to gradual religious transformations rather than an instantaneous mass conversion to Islam. The authors analyzed sources that described the lands located to the east as “countries of war and unbelief,” emphasizing the ambiguity of religious boundaries and ongoing clashes between Islamized and non-Islamized populations. In the concluding section, the authors express the opinion that the adoption of Islam by a significant portion of the Oghuz population had significant political consequences. Their active participation in protracted wars for control of Transoxania (Mawarannahr) during the gradual disintegration of the Samanid state in the 10th century led to significant demographic shifts and a mass exodus from traditional areas of residence. The authors, summing up the results of the study, concluded that, despite the mention of Dzhankent in historical sources in later periods, archaeological research data indicate that the main urban settlement actually ceased to exist by the end of the 10th century, marking the end of an important chapter in the history of urban development in Central Asia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Б. Шораев, Р. Дарменов (Автор) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The history of Genghis Khan in the Jami' at-Tawarikh and his Political and sociogenetic legacy in the Kazakh steppe
This article explores the history of Genghis Khan and his political as well as socio-genetic legacy in the Kazakh steppe, based on the historical work Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh («Compendium of Chronicles») authored by Rashid ad-Din. Rashid ad-Din was a high-ranking statesman and vizier of the state Hulaguids, who obtained information directly from official Mongol chronicles and the oral narratives of the nobility. As such, his work constitutes a unique historical source that offers profound and comprehensive insight into the origins and life of Genghis Khan, the political landscape of the time, and intertribal relations on the eve of the Mongol invasion. The aim of this study is to employ Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh as a key narrative source for the ethnopolitical history of Kazakhstan during the 13th-century Mongol conquest and to reconstruct the ethnic processes that took place during that period. Findings and conclusions. The research confirms that Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh is an exceptionally significant written source for studying the Mongol invasions in 13th-century Central Asia, as well as for understanding the ethnopolitical transformations that occurred in the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan. Based on specific historical data, the study investigates the origins, migrations, and political histories of tribes and clans that played a pivotal role in shaping the ethnic foundation of the Kazakh people - such as the Naimans, Kereits, Kipchaks, Jalairs, Qongyrats, Argyns, and others. The article also addresses the genealogy and historical role of Genghis Khan and his descendants - the niruns - from whom all Kazakh khans (the Töre dynasty) eventually emerged. Furthermore, the study examines the political and ethno-social processes of the 13th–14th centuries, a formative period that significantly influenced the development of Kazakh statehood. Genghis Khan is portrayed not only as a conqueror but also as a historic figure who established a system of state governance within the turko-mongol world. The article also discusses the historical role of his descendants in Central Asia and their contribution to the formation of the Kazakh khanate. The intertribal relations, systems of power, governance models, and legal norms described in Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh served as foundational elements for the future political culture of the Great Steppe, including that of the Kazakh khanate. The unique information preserved in Rashid ad-Din’s work provides a deeper understanding of the processes of origin and ethnogenesis of the Kazakh people. This article represents an attempt at conceptual re-evaluation of the legacy of Genghis Khan from the standpoint of contemporary scholarship, in the context of ethnogenetic and political changes brought about by the Mongol conquest in the territory of present-day Kazakhstan.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Assanova, J. Kaliyev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Women's Jewellery of the Kimeks according to Archaeological materials
Archaeological materials serve as an important basis for reconstructing the clothing of people who lived in the Eurasian steppes during the Middle Ages. Research of burials from the Ob-Irtysh interfluve has provided a wealth of material for understanding various aspects of the ancient population's life, including such an important component as clothing. Costume is an important source of our ideas about the past, as it reflects the cultural traditions, worldview, and social status of its owners. Based on the study of 17 female burials, information has been compiled on medieval jewellery, its location, the materials used, decoration, etc. These burials were studied in the Ob-Irtysh interfluve, i.e., where the territory of the Kimek Khaganate is located. The Kimek women's costume was characterised by a variety of designs, with the greatest concentration of jewellery in the head area. The basis of decorative elements consisted of toreutic items, especially solid cast jewellery used as independent objects. Pendant fasteners, temporal pendants, mirror fragments and decorations apparently associated with headdresses, such as pins, finials and decorative elements, were often used. The observed variability in forms and materials indicates the absence of a single standard. Kimek women's costume of the 9th–11th cc. is a unique example of the synthesis of the utilitarian and symbolic functions of decorative elements, made mainly of metal. One of the key features is the vertical arrangement of decorations, located along the axis from the head to the waist, most often on the left side of the body. Of particular interest are items decorated with ornithomorphic images. The head area is the most richly decorated, featuring headdress finials, pins and braid decorations with images of mythological and real birds (phoenixes, griffins and waterfowl). Toreutics predominate over other types of jewellery, while beads, for example, are less common and are found only in a few burials (the largest number of them is discovered in one of the burials – 180 pieces). Pendants, plaques, rings and bracelets with floral and geometric motifs were found in the chest, waist and arm areas. Some items could be attached to clothing, carried in handbags or suspended from a belt. All these materials allow us to reconstruct the complex structure of the costume and its ritual and social significance. It reflects information about gender, age and social status.
Copyright (c) 2025 B. Khassenova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Development of Bilateral Relations Between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan in 1993–2013
In the period from 1993 to 2013, relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Kazakhstan developed steadily based on historical, cultural, and linguistic commonality, mutual respect, and strategic interests. The states in question, which became independent after the collapse of the USSR, built their bilateral ties, simultaneously forming an independent foreign policy identity and strengthening their positions in the international arena. Cooperation in the energy sector acquired special significance in bilateral relations. The signing of an agreement on cooperation in the oil and gas industry in 1996, as well as the 2006 agreement on the transportation of Kazakh oil through the Caspian Sea and the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, became breakthrough steps in bilateral relations. Kazakhstan received a reliable route for the export of its hydrocarbons, and Azerbaijan received a strategic partner in the development of its transit infrastructure. The article analyzes the development of bilateral relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Kazakhstan in the period from 1993 to 2013. The key stages of cooperation in the political, economic, energy, and humanitarian spheres are considered. Based on the study of diplomatic initiatives and economic indicators, the main factors that contributed to the development of mutually beneficial cooperation and the formation of a solid base for further interaction between the two countries are identified. The article highlights the main achievements and significant agreements that laid the foundation for further strategic interaction in the 21st century. The work uses the methods of comparative historical analysis, a systems approach, as well as elements of content analysis of official documents and speeches. The analysis of bilateral relations is based on the study of political, economic, and cultural aspects of cooperation between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, with the involvement of both official sources and scientific literature. The work analyzes the key interstate treaties between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, which made it possible to identify the legal basis and institutional mechanisms for cooperation between the two countries. In conclusion, it is emphasized that relations between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan in the period under review were characterized by stable growth and deepening of multi-level interaction, which created a solid foundation for a long-term mutually beneficial alliance. Prospects for further development of the partnership are associated with the implementation of joint infrastructure and energy projects, as well as with strengthening coordination on topical issues of regional security and sustainable development. Thus, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan continue to form a model of constructive cooperation based on common interests, historical and cultural ties.
Copyright (c) 2025 S. Jabbarova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
S. Seifullin’s novel The Thorny Path in the context of studying the role of personality in history.
The 21st century marks a period of unprecedented scientific advancement on a global scale. This is due to the emergence and development of modern technologies, which have led to the creation of innovative technologies and professions that serve humanity. Furthermore, various scientific fields are interconnected, resulting in groundbreaking research. In this context, the field of history is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines, leading to an abundance of new data and the development of theoretical and methodological approaches. Consequently, new scholarly works have emerged in the field of personology, a branch of historical science. Authors in this field emphasize the historical significance of personology in national history from a scientific perspective. This is because every moment and event in life involves people, and as a result, these periods become history. From this perspective, this scientific article conducts theoretical and methodological analyses at a scientific level in the field of personology. Moreover, the researcher’s focus on systematically examining and analyzing the past is of particular importance. The article examines a historical and textual analysis of Saken Seifullin’s novel “Thorny Path” (Tar Zhol, Taigak Keshu), a prominent figure of Alash who fought for the country’s independence. The history of writing and publication of the novel is analyzed, especially the original manuscript written in Arabic script in Kyzylorda in 1927, and compared with the editions of 1936, 1960, 1977, 1988, 2009, and 2012, highlighting textual differences among the later editions. The impact of Soviet ideology on the content of the novel through alterations introduced in later editions is thoroughly investigated. Additionally, the article discusses information about Alash figures and the author’s viewpoints presented in the work. The study reveals that this novel is not only a work of fiction but also a significant source of historical and political events in Kazakhstan in the early 20th century. Editorial revisions that distorted the author’s intent are identified, and the importance of achieving historical justice is emphasized. A theoretical and methodological analysis was conducted within the framework of personality studies. The exploration of Saken Seifullin’s work holds significant value not only for the field of literary studies but also as an essential source for the history of Kazakhstan. The results of this research represent an important and relevant step toward restoring historical justice and fostering an objective understanding of the past. This study highlights the importance of textual analysis and the necessity for precision in working with historical sources. Furthermore, it emphasizes the contribution of personality studies to the development of historical knowledge. This work represents a meaningful scholarly effort in the pursuit of an accurate evaluation of the past and the formation of national consciousness.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Ibrayeva, K. Seitkazina , A.Taşağıl https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Metallographic analysis of objects of the Bronze Age and early Iron Age from the territory of the Kokshetau Upland
The article presents the results of metallographic analysis of metal objects and rock fragments discovered in the territory of the Kokshetau Upland, which is administratively located within the Akmola region of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The area is of interest since it was a developed mining and metallurgical centre from the second millennium BC, part of the large Eurasian metallurgical province. Judging by the available data, it functioned for a long time. The objective of the study was to identify the features of the metal of products of different historical stages, to determine the continuity and features of the development of metallurgy in a specific and local territory of Northern Eurasia. A total of thirty-six artifacts from sites where stationary excavations or exploration activities were carried out in the period from 2010 to 2022 were analysed. The chronology of the sites from which they were selected refers to a wide period of time from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Saka time and the Hunno-Sarmatian period. Artifacts for analysis were collected in seven sites, which are located in the main mountain forest massifs of the Kokshetau Upland. In the Zerenda Mountains – settlement Shagalaly II and burial mound Shagalaly IV. In the Sandyktau Mountains, three mine workings, near the settlement of the Late Bronze Age. In the Burabay mountain forest massif – burial mound Ulkensor, settlement Akkain, mine working Madeniet, settlement Saule. The largest collections are represented by materials from two settlements of the Late Bronze Age (beginning - second half of the 2nd millennium BC). Six items were from the settlement Shagalaly II - two metal ingots, two bronze jewellery tools, a needle from a bronze rod, a bronze chisel, and a dagger with a plastic blade. A metal sickle-shaped tool, a single-edged plate sickle knife, two single-edged knives with a distinct handle, a single-edged plate knife, a dagger knife belonging to the category of handled knives, and a fragment of a metal knife were from the Akkain settlement. The list includes a knife from a mine working near the village of Madeniet and a defective product from the Saule settlement. In addition, artifacts associated with the metallurgical cycle were analysed – pieces of waste rock, defects, and slag. The Early Saka period (VII - VI centuries BC) is represented by seven arrowheads from a burial in the Ulkensor mound studied in the Burabay district. Also, jewellery from a female late Sarmatian burial in a stone mound studied in the Zerenda district belongs to the Hunno-Sarmatian period (II - IV centuries AD). Thus, all the main historical and chronological periods characterized by bronze metallurgy were presented.
Copyright (c) 2025 M. Radivojevic , I. Calgaro https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Invisible Front: Anti-Epidemic Commissions and the Struggle Against Infectious Diseases in the Kazakh SSR During the War Years (1941–1945)
This article explores the specific features of Soviet healthcare during the Second World War by analysing one of its key components — the fight against infectious diseases. Wars and other large-scale social disruptions often led to outbreaks and the rapid spread of infectious diseases. Providing proper medical and sanitary services to the general population, and particularly to workers in industries of strategic importance to the front, was among the highest priorities of Soviet healthcare in the rear. Based on a wide range of archival materials and published sources, some of which are introduced into scholarly circulation for the first time, this study identifies the main factors that contributed to the deterioration of the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Kazakh SSR during 1941–1945. The authors analyse state measures aimed at maintaining minimal sanitary conditions, controlling infection spread, and preserving labour resources essential for wartime. Special attention is devoted to the role of medical institutions, sanitary-epidemiological services, and the party and Soviet administrative bodies of the republic, which coordinated and unified all available efforts in the fight against epidemics. The contribution of scientific and research institutions, particularly the Kazakh Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, is highlighted for its work in preventing highly contagious diseases and in the localization and elimination of infection outbreaks. Due to resource shortages, local populations were actively involved in sanitary measures, while the supervisory role of judicial and law enforcement agencies was significantly strengthened. Despite the severe wartime conditions, endemic plague regions, and limited social infrastructure, the Kazakh SSR successfully avoided mass epidemics. The study emphasizes that this achievement was made possible through the coordinated efforts of state, medical, and research institutions. This article is dedicated to the commemoration of the 80th anniversary of the end of the Second World War and honours the selfless work of thousands of Soviet medical and scientific professionals who made invaluable contributions to the prevention and eradication of epidemic threats.
Copyright (c) 2025 R. Zharkynbayeva , A. Abdiraiymova , A. Zhanabay https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Bronze Age Mining Communities in the Semey and Pavlodar Irtysh region
The publication examines issues in the history of the study of archaeological cultures and the development of metallurgy in the Bronze Age. An important region for understanding the complexity and characteristics of these processes in Northern Eurasia is the territory of the Abay region of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Traces of the emergence of mining and a manufacturing economy have been recorded at sites in the Semey and Pavlodar Irtysh regions. The purpose of this article is to provide a historiographical overview and determine the extent of research on this topic. The list includes works that highlight the results of archaeological research into settlements, burial grounds, and ancient mining sites. The Early Bronze Age period is key to understanding this. Therefore, to achieve this goal, the authors set out to analyze published data on sites whose cultural layers contain evidence of late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age materials. This allowed us to refine the chronology of the initial Early Metal Age in the region. Data on the ceramic assemblage, metal objects, and burial rites made it possible to examine the historical and cultural affiliations of the monuments. Research materials from ancient mines and workings for tin, copper, and gold characterize ancient technologies developed by tribes that inhabited the region during the Bronze Age. A significant role is given to a historiographical review of studies devoted to the study of metals and the chemical composition of ores, which demonstrate the uniqueness of the ore deposits of eastern Kazakhstan. Data from natural science analyses are necessary to identify the boundaries of a regional metallurgical center and the routes of distribution of products from this center. The discussion and results describe the processes of penetration of the Early Bronze Age archaeological cultures into the region: the Yamnaya and Afanasievo cultures. The use of additional sources allowed the authors to hypothesize the routes taken by the Early Bronze Age population, traces of which have been recorded at sites in Western, Northern, and Eastern Kazakhstan, and to understand their role in the subsequent development of mining and Bronze Age cultures. This concerns the monuments of the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, united into the Alakul and Nura (Fedorovskaya) archaeological cultures. As can be seen from the sources, the subsequent coexistence of two cultural formations in the same territory during the 16th–15th centuries BC became the basis for the formation of the Alekseevsko-Sargary archaeological culture of the 15th–12th centuries BC, which played an important role in the final stage of the Bronze Age.
Copyright (c) 2025 S. Sakenov, S. Yaryginа https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Uprisings and protests of people in 1928-1932 in Kazakhstan
This paper aims to study the history of uprisings and protests by the people of Kazakhstan that took place between 1928 and 1932. The objective of this scientific work is to identify the stages, numbers, dynamics, and forms of resistance, as well as to determine the driving forces, goals, and nature of uprisings and protests, and the number of participants. The relevance and novelty of the study are reflected in the in-depth critical analysis of documentary sources, most of which are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time, in the presentation of updated statistics on uprisings and protests of people, the number of participants, as well as data on the number of repressed uprisings and protests participants. The results of the study demonstrated that the policy of the Soviet government and the state, which had been implemented in the period from 1928 to 1932, aggravated the socio-political contradictions between the government and various social strata and groups, which led to large-scale public uprisings and protests. In terms of content, they were: a) armed uprisings that led to military clashes with troops and communist detachments; b) armed migrations, accompanied by fierce military actions with OGPU forces and border troops; c) peaceful actions, expressed in opposition to the economic and political campaigns of the authorities and accompanied by demands for the abolition of grain and livestock procurement, attacks on Soyuzmyaso (Meat depot) bases, taking back socialized livestock, and the theft of grain from barns. All armed uprisings were suppressed most brutally, and their participants were subjected to criminal prosecution and large-scale repression. In the process of an in-depth study of documents and materials, data was revealed that in 1929-1931, there were not 372 unarmed uprisings, but 399 uprisings. Considering over 120 mass struggles that took place in the first half of 1932 due to food shortages, the total number of public uprisings and protests for 1928-1932 amounted to 545, including twenty-six armed actions in which more than one hundred thousand people took part. The total number of mass upheavals and folk-quakes, both armed and unarmed, included migrations, the activities of “counter-revolutionary” organizations and groups, and the actions of “gangs.” Declassification of the CDA (Classified documents archives), concentrated in the SA of the RK, access to classified materials, contained in the SSA of KNB of the RK, will provide an opportunity for a thorough study of the entire set of a significant volume of materials on the history of the "gang movement" in late 1931 - 1932. This will allow us to separate protest movements from the actions of “gangs” that had either a criminal or criminal-political overtone and to expand the chronological framework of the protest movement up to and including 1932. It is necessary to develop the problem of qualifying “bandit migrations” beyond the borders of residence or abroad, which were one of the forms of protest of Kazakh Sharua (peasantry) against the agrarian policy of the Soviet government.
Copyright (c) 2025 Т. Алланиязов (Автор) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
On the cultural genesis of the Nurinsko-Fyodorovo complexes of Central Kazakhstan
The vast area of distribution of the Fedorov culture, covering almost the entire eastern part of the steppe Eurasia, contributed to the advancement of numerous hypotheses related to the issues of the formation of this powerful ethnocultural formation. However, the solution to this problem, based on the involvement of autochthonous cultures of the Eneolithic or Early Bronze Age, has not been confirmed and is subject to fair criticism. At present, the most preferable assumption of the migratory nature of the origin of the Fedorov antiquities, the sources of which lie in the territory of Central Asia and Southern Kazakhstan. It is noted that on the territory of the Central Asian interfluve, as a result of close contacts between the sedentary agricultural population and the pit cattle-breeding tribes, polycomponent complexes are formed that combine the features of both groups of the population. It is assumed that their interaction led to the development of an innovative cattle-breeding and agricultural model of management with a dominant cattle-breeding direction. Perhaps the role of the trigger was also played by significant climatic changes associated with the onset of the xerothermic period at the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennia BC. A significant part of the population with the forming proto-Fedorovo features leaves the inhabited places and moves to Southern Kazakhstan and Semirechye, from where it penetrates Eastern Kazakhstan, and then moves along one vector to Southern Siberia and further to the Yenisei, and the other - through Northern Kazakhstan to the Southern Trans-Urals. The advance into Central Kazakhstan should apparently be associated with a separate migration impulse, which led to the formation of the Nura-Fedorovo complexes, which have some regional features and occupy a slightly later chronological position compared to the main array of Fedorovo monuments. The Yamnaya heritage is particularly evident in the construction of huge elite earthen mounds by the standards of the Bronze Age, characteristic of the Fedorov culture. Burials on the back, with legs bent at the knees, are occasionally noted, and the use of red (yellow) ochre or paint in the ritual is recorded, which is generally consistent with the typical ritualism of the Yamnaya culture, as well as the anthropological proximity to the yamno-catacomb populations. The agricultural side is represented by the construction of cysts, as well as the widespread use of agricultural tools such as stone hoes, grain grinders, chimes, and pestles. It is possible that the construction of ancient hydraulic structures, well-known in Central Kazakhstan, is connected with the activities of the Nurin-Fedorov population. It is assumed that their purpose was necessary for watering grain or garden crops.
Copyright (c) 2025 I. Kukushkin , O. Shokhatayev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Coin finds in the archaeological sites of Sary-Arka
The finds of coins at the archaeological sites of Sary-Arka represent a unique phenomenon that is important for understanding the socio-economic and cultural history of the steppe region of Kazakhstan. Due to the predominance of barter and poorly systematized monetary circulation, coins are rare in this region, which gives the finds special value for scientific analysis. Coins are of particular interest because they show a functional transformation from an economic tool to a ritual symbol. The purpose of this article is to systematize coin finds from archaeological sites of Akmola, Karaganda, Pavlodar, North Kazakhstan and Ulytau regions, as well as their interpretation as elements of monetary circulation and ritual practices. The work uses standard methods of working with sources and scientific publications, including analysis and synthesis. These methods allowed us to identify the chronological, geographical and political features of the distribution of coins. An analysis of 60 coins found in archaeological sites has shown that the most common are the mints of the Uzbek and Zhanibek khans; the main mints are Sarai and Khorezm. Isolated finds of coins of the Timurids and the Bukhara Khanate indicate the preservation of cultural ties in the region in a later period. The discovery of Chagatai coins in burial complexes indicates that the ritual use of coins was not limited to the Golden Horde coinage. The purpose of the study is to trace the development of monetary circulation during the heyday of the Golden Horde and determine the role of coins in the barter system. For the first time, the article presents a consolidated collection of Sary-Arka coin finds recorded in the scientific literature. The results of the study allow us to conclude that the coins in the territories of Sary-Arka did not perform a mass economic function, which confirms the weak development of monetary circulation in conditions of the predominance of barter. At the same time, their regular discovery in funeral complexes, often in strictly defined positions, in the hands of the deceased, under the skull, indicates the transformation of coins into ritual objects. Thus, the coin lost its original economic function and acquired symbolic significance, becoming part of the funeral ritual. This reflects the syncretic nature of the cultural development of the region, in which elements of centralized statehood, such as the Golden Horde coin system, were adapted to the conditions of nomadic culture and integrated into traditional beliefs associated with the afterlife.
Copyright (c) 2025 I. Kazmadiyarova, J. Ouellet https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/