The Gumilyov Journal of History is an international, peer-reviewed scientific and historical journal that is open to all readers. The journal's stated mission is to become a leading creative hub that promotes research on all aspects of the history of Kazakhstan (Domestic History) and Eurasia in a broad sense, from the eastern to western margins. Main thematic areas of the journal: Archaeology, World History, National History. The journal welcomes articles that place these regions in a global context (World History). The journal was initially published until December 31, 2024, under the title “Bulletin of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Series: Historical Sciences. Philosophy. Religious Studies”, first published in 1995. The journal was established by Non-profit joint-stock company L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, a leading scientific and educational institution in Central Asia that has made significant contributions to advancing academic science, interdisciplinary research, and disseminating scientific knowledge. The university, named after the great Eurasian thinker Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov, upholds the traditions of in-depth historical analysis by integrating interdisciplinary research methods, scientific support, a solid methodological foundation, and access to extensive academic resources. The mission and objectives of the journal are to unite scholars working on relevant regional thematic areas, such as archaeology, historiography, source studies, ethnography, and ethnology, providing a platform to present the best theoretical, empirical, and analytical scientific works dedicated to the history of Kazakhstan and the Eurasian continent. The journal's brand is built upon an interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral synthesis, bringing together unique thematic areas in the study of history. The Gumilyov Journal of History is intended for professional historians, researchers, educators, graduate students, and undergraduates interested in historical processes within the Eurasia and beyond. The journal publishes original research articles, review papers, book reviews, archival studies, and analytical materials. The journal considers all manuscripts under the strict condition that the manuscript is the author's original work and does not duplicate any previously published works, including the author’s own prior publications. Founder and Publisher: Non-profit joint-stock company L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University Certificate of re-registration for Periodical Print Publication and/or News Agency No. KZ41VPY00111229, issued on January 31, 2025, by the Information Committee of the Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan. ISSN (Print) 3080-129Х ISSN (Online) 3080-6860 The history of renaming: Bulletin of L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Series: Historical Sciences. Philosophy. Religious Studies – 1995-2024 гг. Gumilyov Journal of History – since 2025. Publication frequency: 4 times a year (March, June, September, December). The journal publishes articles in Kazakh, English, and Russian languages. It is included in the list of journals recommended by the Science and Higher Education Quality Assurance Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Online First — accepted articles are published on the website with full citation details, assigned DOI, and registered in the Crossref database (DOI remains unchanged after publication). A pre-publication version of the article is available for download in PDF format. Readers can access the article in the "Accepted for Publication" section of the website, and authors can reference it as part of their scientific work in official reports, just like a final published article.
L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
S. Seifullin’s novel The Thorny Path in the context of studying the role of personality in history.
The 21st century marks a period of unprecedented scientific advancement on a global scale. This is due to the emergence and development of modern technologies, which have led to the creation of innovative technologies and professions that serve humanity. Furthermore, various scientific fields are interconnected, resulting in groundbreaking research. In this context, the field of history is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines, leading to an abundance of new data and the development of theoretical and methodological approaches. Consequently, new scholarly works have emerged in the field of personology, a branch of historical science. Authors in this field emphasize the historical significance of personology in national history from a scientific perspective. This is because every moment and event in life involves people, and as a result, these periods become history. From this perspective, this scientific article conducts theoretical and methodological analyses at a scientific level in the field of personology. Moreover, the researcher’s focus on systematically examining and analyzing the past is of particular importance. The article examines a historical and textual analysis of Saken Seifullin’s novel “Thorny Path” (Tar Zhol, Taigak Keshu), a prominent figure of Alash who fought for the country’s independence. The history of writing and publication of the novel is analyzed, especially the original manuscript written in Arabic script in Kyzylorda in 1927, and compared with the editions of 1936, 1960, 1977, 1988, 2009, and 2012, highlighting textual differences among the later editions. The impact of Soviet ideology on the content of the novel through alterations introduced in later editions is thoroughly investigated. Additionally, the article discusses information about Alash figures and the author’s viewpoints presented in the work. The study reveals that this novel is not only a work of fiction but also a significant source of historical and political events in Kazakhstan in the early 20th century. Editorial revisions that distorted the author’s intent are identified, and the importance of achieving historical justice is emphasized. A theoretical and methodological analysis was conducted within the framework of personality studies. The exploration of Saken Seifullin’s work holds significant value not only for the field of literary studies but also as an essential source for the history of Kazakhstan. The results of this research represent an important and relevant step toward restoring historical justice and fostering an objective understanding of the past. This study highlights the importance of textual analysis and the necessity for precision in working with historical sources. Furthermore, it emphasizes the contribution of personality studies to the development of historical knowledge. This work represents a meaningful scholarly effort in the pursuit of an accurate evaluation of the past and the formation of national consciousness.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Ibrayeva, K. Seitkazina , A.Taşağıl https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
«Secrets of ancient jewelry: regional jewelry heritage» based on the materials of the Foundation of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan
The article presents information about the jewelry of the Kazakh people based on the analysis of the collection of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Jewelry, being an important component of the material culture of the Kazakhs, reflects not only aesthetic ideas but also craft traditions, as well as socio-cultural characteristics of the population. Jewelry, being one of the most stable and conservative elements of a traditional costume, carries not only valuable, but often "dumb" information. This work is devoted to the publication and primary analysis of women's metal jewelry of the 19th-20th centuries. The work is the first stage of a comprehensive study aimed at studying the regional features of jewelry and identifying parallels between archaeological materials from the Bronze Age, the Early Iron Age, and the Early Middle Ages with products dating back to Modern Times. The relevance of the research is due to the need to preserve and systematize the accumulated information about the traditional forms of decorative and applied art of the Kazakh people. In the current conditions of globalization and unification of cultures, the detailed significance of regional variations is of particular importance. In the course of the research, special attention was paid to the study of the books of receipts, which are documentary materials documenting the history of the collection's formation. The use of these data made it possible to clarify the origin of a number of products, to identify the geography and features of the acquisition of museum collections. Based on the information collected, the article provides generalized statistical data, presents a classification of jewelry by category: head ornaments, neck and chest ornaments, hand ornaments, etc. For each category of jewelry received from the region we are interested in, one representative example has been selected, described in detail in terms of technology and ornamentation. Special attention is paid to the issues of symbolism and the functional purpose of jewelry. It was found that most of the products had not only a decorative value, but also carried a magical function. The jewelry was made of silver, which translates the value of this metal for the Kazakh people. The methodological basis of the article is semiotic and culturological approaches, as well as source studies, typological, and comparative historical research methods. The analysis of the stock collection of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan shows the stability of craft traditions and the continuity of artistic forms reflecting the cultural specifics of the region. The obtained materials can serve as a basis for further scientific research on the traditional jewelry art of Kazakhstan.
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Aitbayeva, K. Saparova, A. Sautbekova, A. Kumarbayeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Metallographic analysis of objects of the Bronze Age and early Iron Age from the territory of the Kokshetau Upland
The article presents the results of metallographic analysis of metal objects and rock fragments discovered in the territory of the Kokshetau Upland, which is administratively located within the Akmola region of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The area is of interest since it was a developed mining and metallurgical centre from the second millennium BC, part of the large Eurasian metallurgical province. Judging by the available data, it functioned for a long time. The objective of the study was to identify the features of the metal of products of different historical stages, to determine the continuity and features of the development of metallurgy in a specific and local territory of Northern Eurasia. A total of thirty-six artifacts from sites where stationary excavations or exploration activities were carried out in the period from 2010 to 2022 were analysed. The chronology of the sites from which they were selected refers to a wide period of time from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Saka time and the Hunno-Sarmatian period. Artifacts for analysis were collected in seven sites, which are located in the main mountain forest massifs of the Kokshetau Upland. In the Zerenda Mountains – settlement Shagalaly II and burial mound Shagalaly IV. In the Sandyktau Mountains, three mine workings, near the settlement of the Late Bronze Age. In the Burabay mountain forest massif – burial mound Ulkensor, settlement Akkain, mine working Madeniet, settlement Saule. The largest collections are represented by materials from two settlements of the Late Bronze Age (beginning - second half of the 2nd millennium BC). Six items were from the settlement Shagalaly II - two metal ingots, two bronze jewellery tools, a needle from a bronze rod, a bronze chisel, and a dagger with a plastic blade. A metal sickle-shaped tool, a single-edged plate sickle knife, two single-edged knives with a distinct handle, a single-edged plate knife, a dagger knife belonging to the category of handled knives, and a fragment of a metal knife were from the Akkain settlement. The list includes a knife from a mine working near the village of Madeniet and a defective product from the Saule settlement. In addition, artifacts associated with the metallurgical cycle were analysed – pieces of waste rock, defects, and slag. The Early Saka period (VII - VI centuries BC) is represented by seven arrowheads from a burial in the Ulkensor mound studied in the Burabay district. Also, jewellery from a female late Sarmatian burial in a stone mound studied in the Zerenda district belongs to the Hunno-Sarmatian period (II - IV centuries AD). Thus, all the main historical and chronological periods characterized by bronze metallurgy were presented.
Copyright (c) 2025 M. Radivojevic , I. Calgaro https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Chronology and cultural affiliation of the early burials of the Tazhegul burial ground
This paper introduces materials obtained during scientific research at the Tazhegul archaeological complex. The complex is located near the village of Abylaykhan in the Burabay district of the Akmola region. A topographic description of the valley is provided, which contains numerous sites from various periods – from the Early and Late Bronze Ages to the modern period. This paper aims to highlight the research findings on monuments dating back to the initial stage of the complex's formation. The methods and materials section describes the process and results of the study of two objects: stone enclosure No. 1 and a small extension to enclosure No. 2. The first site is located in the lower, northern part of the valley, while the second was discovered in the upper southern part, in the stratigraphic layer beneath the Kazakh Kystau. Radiocarbon dating of the sites yielded dates ranging from the 4th to the 3rd millennia BC. The literature review and discussion section provides a comparative typological analysis of similar sites studied in other regions of Kazakhstan. This allowed the authors to hypothesize about the unified processes of cultural genesis that occurred across much of Kazakhstan during the Early Bronze Age. The article focuses on Early Bronze Age sites in the Burabay mountain forest massif of Northern Kazakhstan, the materials from which are important for addressing certain issues concerning the origins of archaeological cultures of this period. New materials, the first ever discovered in the study area, reveal evidence of burial structures and a burial rite similar to the Yamnaya culture. The authors document and analyze cultural layers of different periods within the complex. Monuments with characteristics of the Yamnaya culture are overlain by a cultural layer of the Nura-Fyodorovo archaeological culture. This paper presents information on reliably identified sites of the Nura-Fyodorovo archaeological culture located near the Tazhygul complex. The discussion section provides a comparative analysis of the characteristic features of the Yamnaya archaeological culture and the Nura-Fyodorovo culture sites that succeeded it. In conclusion, the researchers formulate and express the concept that the formation of regional groups of the Nura-Fyodorovo culture could have occurred on the basis of the Yamnaya culture monuments.
Copyright (c) 2025 K. Auezov, S. Yarygin, S. Sakenov, G. Kulmagambetova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Invisible Front: Anti-Epidemic Commissions and the Struggle Against Infectious Diseases in the Kazakh SSR During the War Years (1941–1945)
This article explores the specific features of Soviet healthcare during the Second World War by analysing one of its key components — the fight against infectious diseases. Wars and other large-scale social disruptions often led to outbreaks and the rapid spread of infectious diseases. Providing proper medical and sanitary services to the general population, and particularly to workers in industries of strategic importance to the front, was among the highest priorities of Soviet healthcare in the rear. Based on a wide range of archival materials and published sources, some of which are introduced into scholarly circulation for the first time, this study identifies the main factors that contributed to the deterioration of the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Kazakh SSR during 1941–1945. The authors analyse state measures aimed at maintaining minimal sanitary conditions, controlling infection spread, and preserving labour resources essential for wartime. Special attention is devoted to the role of medical institutions, sanitary-epidemiological services, and the party and Soviet administrative bodies of the republic, which coordinated and unified all available efforts in the fight against epidemics. The contribution of scientific and research institutions, particularly the Kazakh Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology, is highlighted for its work in preventing highly contagious diseases and in the localization and elimination of infection outbreaks. Due to resource shortages, local populations were actively involved in sanitary measures, while the supervisory role of judicial and law enforcement agencies was significantly strengthened. Despite the severe wartime conditions, endemic plague regions, and limited social infrastructure, the Kazakh SSR successfully avoided mass epidemics. The study emphasizes that this achievement was made possible through the coordinated efforts of state, medical, and research institutions. This article is dedicated to the commemoration of the 80th anniversary of the end of the Second World War and honours the selfless work of thousands of Soviet medical and scientific professionals who made invaluable contributions to the prevention and eradication of epidemic threats.
Copyright (c) 2025 R. Zharkynbayeva , A. Abdiraiymova , A. Zhanabay https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
«Beat the Communists»: the mood of the unemployed population of the Siberian region according to the OGPU of the USSR
In the 1920s, the Soviet state faced a very serious socio-economic phenomenon — mass unemployment, caused by a number of reasons. Throughout the 1920s, the number of unemployed people grew annually, and by the end of the period under review, it reached 1.7 million people. In 1929, the situation became even more acute due to the collectivisation that began in the country and, as a consequence, the aggravation of the food problem and another massive influx of peasants into the cities. By the end of the decade, unemployment had become stagnant. In 1927, the state took some measures that created obstacles for certain categories of the population in their search for work. The rejection of economic factors in regulating the labour market in favour of administrative methods, food, material, domestic and other difficulties turned the multimillion-dollar reserve army of labour into a disloyal group of people, which was characterised by protest behaviour, which became acute in certain regions of the USSR. In addition, according to OGPU employees, labour exchanges posed a particular danger, as they concentrated large crowds of people daily. To prevent various kinds of protests, the unemployed were under special attention of the OGPU bodies, whose responsibilities included, among other things, informing about the moods of people without work. For this purpose, the Chekists monthly compiled memorandums about the moods, statements, and ideas of this target group. This work introduces for the first time into scientific circulation an operational summary dated June 15, 1929, stored in the State Archive of the Novosibirsk Region in the fund of the Labour Department of the Executive Committee of the West Siberian Regional Council of Workers’, Peasants’, and Red Army Deputies. The purpose of the work is to show the moods and behaviour of the unemployed in the Siberian region in mid-1929, i.e., during the first five-year plan, when for the first time in the 1920s, the demand for labour exceeded its supply, but the problem was not overcome. Based on the memorandum, which provides rich material for study, an attempt is made to identify the spectrum of public moods, to consider the cumulative factors that influenced the formation of the moods and behaviour of the unemployed in the Siberian region. Due to the published memorandum, it is possible to analyse the attitude of the unemployed population towards the country’s leadership, towards the activities carried out in the country, including collectivisation, models of protest against the authorities, etc. It is concluded that the unfavourable situation of the unemployed, including the lack of food, the absence of jobs, earnings, the need for registration by labour exchanges, and reforms, led to various conflicts with labour exchange employees, clashes and fights with police officers, and riots. Among the people, ideas about uprisings against the Soviet authorities were popular, and calls for military struggle against the communists spread. Such moods in the Siberian region, according to the OGPU, were widespread.
Copyright (c) 2025 N. Potapova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The history of Genghis Khan in the Jami' at-Tawarikh and his Political and sociogenetic legacy in the Kazakh steppe
This article explores the history of Genghis Khan and his political as well as socio-genetic legacy in the Kazakh steppe, based on the historical work Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh («Compendium of Chronicles») authored by Rashid ad-Din. Rashid ad-Din was a high-ranking statesman and vizier of the state Hulaguids, who obtained information directly from official Mongol chronicles and the oral narratives of the nobility. As such, his work constitutes a unique historical source that offers profound and comprehensive insight into the origins and life of Genghis Khan, the political landscape of the time, and intertribal relations on the eve of the Mongol invasion. The aim of this study is to employ Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh as a key narrative source for the ethnopolitical history of Kazakhstan during the 13th-century Mongol conquest and to reconstruct the ethnic processes that took place during that period. Findings and conclusions. The research confirms that Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh is an exceptionally significant written source for studying the Mongol invasions in 13th-century Central Asia, as well as for understanding the ethnopolitical transformations that occurred in the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan. Based on specific historical data, the study investigates the origins, migrations, and political histories of tribes and clans that played a pivotal role in shaping the ethnic foundation of the Kazakh people - such as the Naimans, Kereits, Kipchaks, Jalairs, Qongyrats, Argyns, and others. The article also addresses the genealogy and historical role of Genghis Khan and his descendants - the niruns - from whom all Kazakh khans (the Töre dynasty) eventually emerged. Furthermore, the study examines the political and ethno-social processes of the 13th–14th centuries, a formative period that significantly influenced the development of Kazakh statehood. Genghis Khan is portrayed not only as a conqueror but also as a historic figure who established a system of state governance within the turko-mongol world. The article also discusses the historical role of his descendants in Central Asia and their contribution to the formation of the Kazakh khanate. The intertribal relations, systems of power, governance models, and legal norms described in Jāmiʿ at-Tawārīkh served as foundational elements for the future political culture of the Great Steppe, including that of the Kazakh khanate. The unique information preserved in Rashid ad-Din’s work provides a deeper understanding of the processes of origin and ethnogenesis of the Kazakh people. This article represents an attempt at conceptual re-evaluation of the legacy of Genghis Khan from the standpoint of contemporary scholarship, in the context of ethnogenetic and political changes brought about by the Mongol conquest in the territory of present-day Kazakhstan.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Assanova, J. Kaliyev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Bronze Age Mining Communities in the Semey and Pavlodar Irtysh region
The publication examines issues in the history of the study of archaeological cultures and the development of metallurgy in the Bronze Age. An important region for understanding the complexity and characteristics of these processes in Northern Eurasia is the territory of the Abay region of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Traces of the emergence of mining and a manufacturing economy have been recorded at sites in the Semey and Pavlodar Irtysh regions. The purpose of this article is to provide a historiographical overview and determine the extent of research on this topic. The list includes works that highlight the results of archaeological research into settlements, burial grounds, and ancient mining sites. The Early Bronze Age period is key to understanding this. Therefore, to achieve this goal, the authors set out to analyze published data on sites whose cultural layers contain evidence of late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age materials. This allowed us to refine the chronology of the initial Early Metal Age in the region. Data on the ceramic assemblage, metal objects, and burial rites made it possible to examine the historical and cultural affiliations of the monuments. Research materials from ancient mines and workings for tin, copper, and gold characterize ancient technologies developed by tribes that inhabited the region during the Bronze Age. A significant role is given to a historiographical review of studies devoted to the study of metals and the chemical composition of ores, which demonstrate the uniqueness of the ore deposits of eastern Kazakhstan. Data from natural science analyses are necessary to identify the boundaries of a regional metallurgical center and the routes of distribution of products from this center. The discussion and results describe the processes of penetration of the Early Bronze Age archaeological cultures into the region: the Yamnaya and Afanasievo cultures. The use of additional sources allowed the authors to hypothesize the routes taken by the Early Bronze Age population, traces of which have been recorded at sites in Western, Northern, and Eastern Kazakhstan, and to understand their role in the subsequent development of mining and Bronze Age cultures. This concerns the monuments of the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, united into the Alakul and Nura (Fedorovskaya) archaeological cultures. As can be seen from the sources, the subsequent coexistence of two cultural formations in the same territory during the 16th–15th centuries BC became the basis for the formation of the Alekseevsko-Sargary archaeological culture of the 15th–12th centuries BC, which played an important role in the final stage of the Bronze Age.
Copyright (c) 2025 S. Sakenov, S. Yaryginа https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Uprisings and protests of people in 1928-1932 in Kazakhstan
This paper aims to study the history of uprisings and protests by the people of Kazakhstan that took place between 1928 and 1932. The objective of this scientific work is to identify the stages, numbers, dynamics, and forms of resistance, as well as to determine the driving forces, goals, and nature of uprisings and protests, and the number of participants. The relevance and novelty of the study are reflected in the in-depth critical analysis of documentary sources, most of which are being introduced into scientific circulation for the first time, in the presentation of updated statistics on uprisings and protests of people, the number of participants, as well as data on the number of repressed uprisings and protests participants. The results of the study demonstrated that the policy of the Soviet government and the state, which had been implemented in the period from 1928 to 1932, aggravated the socio-political contradictions between the government and various social strata and groups, which led to large-scale public uprisings and protests. In terms of content, they were: a) armed uprisings that led to military clashes with troops and communist detachments; b) armed migrations, accompanied by fierce military actions with OGPU forces and border troops; c) peaceful actions, expressed in opposition to the economic and political campaigns of the authorities and accompanied by demands for the abolition of grain and livestock procurement, attacks on Soyuzmyaso (Meat depot) bases, taking back socialized livestock, and the theft of grain from barns. All armed uprisings were suppressed most brutally, and their participants were subjected to criminal prosecution and large-scale repression. In the process of an in-depth study of documents and materials, data was revealed that in 1929-1931, there were not 372 unarmed uprisings, but 399 uprisings. Considering over 120 mass struggles that took place in the first half of 1932 due to food shortages, the total number of public uprisings and protests for 1928-1932 amounted to 545, including twenty-six armed actions in which more than one hundred thousand people took part. The total number of mass upheavals and folk-quakes, both armed and unarmed, included migrations, the activities of “counter-revolutionary” organizations and groups, and the actions of “gangs.” Declassification of the CDA (Classified documents archives), concentrated in the SA of the RK, access to classified materials, contained in the SSA of KNB of the RK, will provide an opportunity for a thorough study of the entire set of a significant volume of materials on the history of the "gang movement" in late 1931 - 1932. This will allow us to separate protest movements from the actions of “gangs” that had either a criminal or criminal-political overtone and to expand the chronological framework of the protest movement up to and including 1932. It is necessary to develop the problem of qualifying “bandit migrations” beyond the borders of residence or abroad, which were one of the forms of protest of Kazakh Sharua (peasantry) against the agrarian policy of the Soviet government.
Copyright (c) 2025 Т. Алланиязов (Автор) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Islam and the Oghuz in the Aral Region (on studies of the Jankent Settlement)
The work covers current issues of the historical period from the mid-7th to the mid-10th century. The article provides a brief historical overview of the period when the Oghuz state functioned, which played a key role in the process of Islamization of Turkic tribes throughout Central Asia and in the territory of modern Kazakhstan. The work aimed to demonstrate, using sources as an example, the processes of successful unification of ethnically diverse groups of nomadic and semi-nomadic populations, with different cultural and religious traditions, into a complex political structure. The territorial scope of the study covered a significant portion of these tribes, who settled and inhabited the fertile banks of the ancient Syr Darya River, moving from an exclusively nomadic way of life to a more sedentary, agricultural and trading activity. The discussion section of the work characterizes the geopolitical landscape of the region, which radically changed in 750 AD, when Arab troops defeated the Chinese armies, occupied many strategically important cities, and established strong Islamic rule in the territory of southern Kazakhstan. The paper demonstrates that this historical event marked a crucial turning point in the region's religious and cultural development, as vast territories came under the direct influence of Islam. The discussion section addresses questions regarding the integration of major urban centres in southern Kazakhstan and Semirechye into the broader Islamic ecumene, which contributed to the formation of distinct ethnoreligious communities. These groups, mostly composed of Turkic peoples who had converted to Islam, became known as "Turkmen" – literally meaning "Turk-like" – reflecting their special status as Islamic converts who retained their Turkic ethnicity and cultural characteristics. The authors also emphasize historical processes in their discussion that point to gradual religious transformations rather than an instantaneous mass conversion to Islam. The authors analyzed sources that described the lands located to the east as “countries of war and unbelief,” emphasizing the ambiguity of religious boundaries and ongoing clashes between Islamized and non-Islamized populations. In the concluding section, the authors express the opinion that the adoption of Islam by a significant portion of the Oghuz population had significant political consequences. Their active participation in protracted wars for control of Transoxania (Mawarannahr) during the gradual disintegration of the Samanid state in the 10th century led to significant demographic shifts and a mass exodus from traditional areas of residence. The authors, summing up the results of the study, concluded that, despite the mention of Dzhankent in historical sources in later periods, archaeological research data indicate that the main urban settlement actually ceased to exist by the end of the 10th century, marking the end of an important chapter in the history of urban development in Central Asia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Б. Шораев, Р. Дарменов (Автор) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
On the cultural genesis of the Nurinsko-Fyodorovo complexes of Central Kazakhstan
The vast area of distribution of the Fedorov culture, covering almost the entire eastern part of the steppe Eurasia, contributed to the advancement of numerous hypotheses related to the issues of the formation of this powerful ethnocultural formation. However, the solution to this problem, based on the involvement of autochthonous cultures of the Eneolithic or Early Bronze Age, has not been confirmed and is subject to fair criticism. At present, the most preferable assumption of the migratory nature of the origin of the Fedorov antiquities, the sources of which lie in the territory of Central Asia and Southern Kazakhstan. It is noted that on the territory of the Central Asian interfluve, as a result of close contacts between the sedentary agricultural population and the pit cattle-breeding tribes, polycomponent complexes are formed that combine the features of both groups of the population. It is assumed that their interaction led to the development of an innovative cattle-breeding and agricultural model of management with a dominant cattle-breeding direction. Perhaps the role of the trigger was also played by significant climatic changes associated with the onset of the xerothermic period at the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennia BC. A significant part of the population with the forming proto-Fedorovo features leaves the inhabited places and moves to Southern Kazakhstan and Semirechye, from where it penetrates Eastern Kazakhstan, and then moves along one vector to Southern Siberia and further to the Yenisei, and the other - through Northern Kazakhstan to the Southern Trans-Urals. The advance into Central Kazakhstan should apparently be associated with a separate migration impulse, which led to the formation of the Nura-Fedorovo complexes, which have some regional features and occupy a slightly later chronological position compared to the main array of Fedorovo monuments. The Yamnaya heritage is particularly evident in the construction of huge elite earthen mounds by the standards of the Bronze Age, characteristic of the Fedorov culture. Burials on the back, with legs bent at the knees, are occasionally noted, and the use of red (yellow) ochre or paint in the ritual is recorded, which is generally consistent with the typical ritualism of the Yamnaya culture, as well as the anthropological proximity to the yamno-catacomb populations. The agricultural side is represented by the construction of cysts, as well as the widespread use of agricultural tools such as stone hoes, grain grinders, chimes, and pestles. It is possible that the construction of ancient hydraulic structures, well-known in Central Kazakhstan, is connected with the activities of the Nurin-Fedorov population. It is assumed that their purpose was necessary for watering grain or garden crops.
Copyright (c) 2025 I. Kukushkin , O. Shokhatayev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Coin finds in the archaeological sites of Sary-Arka
The finds of coins at the archaeological sites of Sary-Arka represent a unique phenomenon that is important for understanding the socio-economic and cultural history of the steppe region of Kazakhstan. Due to the predominance of barter and poorly systematized monetary circulation, coins are rare in this region, which gives the finds special value for scientific analysis. Coins are of particular interest because they show a functional transformation from an economic tool to a ritual symbol. The purpose of this article is to systematize coin finds from archaeological sites of Akmola, Karaganda, Pavlodar, North Kazakhstan and Ulytau regions, as well as their interpretation as elements of monetary circulation and ritual practices. The work uses standard methods of working with sources and scientific publications, including analysis and synthesis. These methods allowed us to identify the chronological, geographical and political features of the distribution of coins. An analysis of 60 coins found in archaeological sites has shown that the most common are the mints of the Uzbek and Zhanibek khans; the main mints are Sarai and Khorezm. Isolated finds of coins of the Timurids and the Bukhara Khanate indicate the preservation of cultural ties in the region in a later period. The discovery of Chagatai coins in burial complexes indicates that the ritual use of coins was not limited to the Golden Horde coinage. The purpose of the study is to trace the development of monetary circulation during the heyday of the Golden Horde and determine the role of coins in the barter system. For the first time, the article presents a consolidated collection of Sary-Arka coin finds recorded in the scientific literature. The results of the study allow us to conclude that the coins in the territories of Sary-Arka did not perform a mass economic function, which confirms the weak development of monetary circulation in conditions of the predominance of barter. At the same time, their regular discovery in funeral complexes, often in strictly defined positions, in the hands of the deceased, under the skull, indicates the transformation of coins into ritual objects. Thus, the coin lost its original economic function and acquired symbolic significance, becoming part of the funeral ritual. This reflects the syncretic nature of the cultural development of the region, in which elements of centralized statehood, such as the Golden Horde coin system, were adapted to the conditions of nomadic culture and integrated into traditional beliefs associated with the afterlife.
Copyright (c) 2025 I. Kazmadiyarova, J. Ouellet https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Foreign Historiography of the Soсial History of Traditional Kazakh Soсiety: Interpreting the Image of the Biy (18th – 20th Сenturies)
Based on materials from Western European and Ameriсan historiography, the artiсle highlights the main theoretiсal and methodologiсal approaсhes to studying one of the key soсial institutions of traditional Kazakh soсiety – the Biy Institute. For a long time, traditional institutions of nomadiс soсieties have attraсted the attention not only of Russian sсholars representing various aсademiс sсhools, but also of Western historians. The artiсle briefly examines the development of various disсourses сonсerning the southeastern periphery of the Russian Empire, whiсh is a region that has сonsistently attraсted the attention of travelers, merсhants, sсholars, and researсhers of the Russian frontier. The expansion of imperial influenсe in the eastern borderlands sparked сonsiderable interest in Сentral Asia among researсhers. A brief analysis of foreign historiography reveals general trends сharaсteristiс of Euro-Ameriсan sсholarship. While сertain thematiс differenсes сan сertainly be observed, these studies nonetheless demonstrate a strong сonneсtion to the soсial history of the Kazakhs. Thus, throughout the historiography of soсio-politiсal developments in the distant past, sсholars have сonsistently foсused on the soсial struсture of Kazakh soсiety, often highlighting its most influential soсial groups. The authors foсus on historiography from the pre-Soviet and Soviet periods. A distinсtive feature of the pre-Soviet era was the perсeption of the Russian Empire as a multinational and multiсultural state. During this period, two main historiographiсal disсourses emerged regarding the empire’s relations with its southeastern periphery. One emphasized Russia’s “сivilizing mission”, while the other advanсed arguments about the empire’s “сonquest-oriented poliсy” in the borderlands. In the more reсent period, these approaсhes have been further developed, aссompanied by a signifiсant inсrease in сritiсism of the empire’s poliсies toward its peripheries. The authors attempt to explain the reasons behind the сonsolidation of suсh a disсourse. In our view, this is primarily due to the faсt that the themes and сontent of Soviet sсholarship were often refleсted, albeit in a reversed form, in foreign historiography, where assessments and сonсlusions tended to be of an opposing nature. As a result, it is understandable that foreign historiography has been largely dominated by narratives emphasizing the failures of Kazakh-Russian relations, partiсularly regarding the empire’s inability to establish stable relations with its peripheral peoples. At the same time, researсhers have mainly foсused on the aristoсratiс strata of nomadiс soсiety, who were seen as the primary forсes of military resistanсe to imperial rule. The authors сonсlude that nomadiс soсieties have long attraсted sustained interest from both сontemporary observers and researсhers from the East and the West. Foreign historiography has made a signifiсant сontribution to the study of the soсial institutions of Kazakh soсiety. It is сharaсterized by unсonventional approaсhes, original perspeсtives, and offers an opportunity to move beyond geographiсal limitations in addressing key issues of our history.
Copyright (c) 2025 T. Kalenova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Traditions of House Building in Kazakhstan:Archaeological Perspective on the Evolution of Dwellings
The article is devoted to a comprehensive study of the evolution of housing forms in the territory of Kazakhstan from the perspective of archaeological data covering the period from the Eneolithic to the late Middle Ages. The main attention is paid to the peculiarities of house-building traditions in different natural-geographical zones - steppe, foothill, mountainous and high-mountainous - with the analysis of constructive, technological, and functional characteristics of dwellings. The article traces the formation and development of various types of dwelling and household buildings: from ground and semi-ground structures of frame-pillar construction of the Bronze Age to log and stone buildings of the Final Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Special attention is paid to regional archaeological complexes – settlements of Asy-I, Turgen-II, Tasbas, Kalakay, Talapty, as well as sites of Central Kazakhstan: Begazy, Atasu, Buguly-I, and others, where rich stratigraphic and architectural materials are revealed. On their basis, the construction technologies, internal layout, organisation of economic space, heating and storage systems, as well as traditions of choosing a place for settlement are analysed. It is established that already in the Late Bronze Age, the principles of dwelling zoning, stable roof forms, typology of hearths and sufas were formed, which was reflected in the later ethnographic architecture of Kazakhs. The issue of continuity of architectural forms and principles between ancient buildings and traditional dwellings of Kazakhs of the New Age, including types of winter dwellings (qystau), is also considered. The choice of location for settlements, the orientation of entrances, the methods of insulation and lighting of dwellings, and the types of building materials (wood, clay, stone, straw, reed) are closely linked to the climate, terrain, and economic specialisation of the population (agriculture, livestock householding, crafts). Archaeological and ethnographic parallels reveal the stability of building traditions determined by climate, resource environment and economic specialisation of the population. The materials of the article are relevant for the reconstruction of the everyday life of the ancient population of Kazakhstan, the analysis of economic models, and the social structure of society. The work contributes to the study of cultural continuity and local specifics of the architectural heritage of the Eurasian steppes.
Copyright (c) 2025 А. Ganiyeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Periodical press of the Turkestan region as a source for studying the history of Kazakhstan at the beginning of the ХХ century
The purpose of our article is to present a historical reconstruction of the change in the lifestyle of Kazakhs in the frontier space of Kazakhstan at the beginning of the XX century based on materials from the periodical press of the Turkestan region. The spatial phenomenon of the frontier implies a borderline mobile space that is unstable, and the imperial power is not yet influential enough. The first stage of the research involved studying the history of periodicals. The study took into account: outdated terminology; and the presence of headings with a different semantic load. In the process of work, all publications were grouped into thematic sections that were most relevant for the research: reforms, the resettlement issue, the land crisis; the electoral system; education; and events in Semirechye in 1916. Results: The periodical press is most closely connected with the problems of Kazakh society because it is close to current events. Newspaper articles have an unconventional view of the problem, sometimes different from public opinion, which causes harsh criticism. Newspaper materials can be conditionally divided into publications that are informational or analytical. The newspapers record the most interesting facts and topical events of Kazakh society. The analysis of the periodical press deserves a full review, rather than a selective one because the information of interest was not distributed evenly across the newspapers. Newspaper publications require critical analysis because correspondence has always carried a certain subjective assessment of events by the author. In the frontier space, a process of mutual influence of cultures, economic and trade relations of the Kazakh population, settlers, and representatives of the administration of the Turkestan region takes place. There is a forced adaptation of the Kazakh population to the new conditions that have arisen and the integration of the Kazakh steppe and the Turkestan region into the Russian Empire. The establishment of new social institutions of power in the Kazakh steppe is taking place, and the penetration of culture and law into Kazakh society is similar to those that existed in the Russian Empire. A wave of protest is growing against: resettlement, land relations, and elections of judges. The number of people dissatisfied with education In Russian-Kazakh schools is increasing, where imperial policies were observed so that students would forget their native language, thereby destroying national individuality.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Ksenzhik https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Two Chagatai Mausoleums in the Trans-Ili Alatau (Based on Archaeological Research)
The article talks about two medieval mausoleums in Ile Alatau (Trans-Ili Alatau), the images (drawing of one and photograph of the second) of which, dating from the beginning of the 20th century, were accidentally published in the book. Until now, these mausoleums have not attracted the attention of researchers. The article provides an architectural description of mausoleums, describes their similarity to each other, and provides a comparative analysis with other mausoleums in neighboring regions, such as the mausoleum of Tugluk Timur and Kumbez Manas. It has been established that both mausoleums belong to the same architectural style; the features of their construction are compared with similar monuments of the Golden Horde era. The medieval Chagatai mausoleums of Tekturmas and Dauitbek in the city of Taraz are described. The study of both mausoleums makes a great contribution to the study of the medieval architecture of the region. These mausoleums not only fill in the gaps in the study of the medieval period of the region, but at the same time prove the existence of their own traditions in the Chagatai architectural art. The influence of the Chagatai mausoleums of the region on the Kazakh funerary architecture has also been established. In particular design of local tomb structures was influenced by Chagatai mausoleums, leading to the emergence of portal-dome structures. However, the impact of this phenomenon was not found to be considerable. The presence of this architectural style was most notable in regions where Chagatai mausoleums were prevalent, while throughout the Ili Alatau, the tradition of constructing multifaceted mausoleums prevailed. The article also discusses the local architectural tradition, typology, and origin of Kazakh tombstones. The grave structures of the Trans–Ili Alatau of the 19th–early 20th century are very diverse. The most common type is simple – shaped tombstone mounds consisting of rounded stones mixed with clay. One of the most common types of burials on the territory of Zhambyl region is large rectangular family fences. With regard to architectural features, the 19th century witnessed the prevalence of rectangular and hexagonal (on occasion, octagonal or heptagonal) mausoleums characterised by domes within the region. A notable example of this architectural style is the prevalence of dome-on-cube mausoleums in the Zhambyl region, which are characterised by a dome resting on a rectangular base. There are also mausoleums with portals, which are clearly visible in photographs from the beginning of the 20th century. Polygonal (or polyhedral) mausoleums are the most widespread in Kegen and Rayymbek districts. Rectangular or hexagonal wooden tombstones are also occasionally found. It is known that many burials built of trees burned down during frequent steppe fires, as information has been preserved among the local population. The polygonality of the Kazakh graves of the Trans-Ili Alatau indicates that they originally had a wooden base.
Copyright (c) 2025 О. Oshanov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Development of Bilateral Relations Between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan in 1993–2013
In the period from 1993 to 2013, relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Kazakhstan developed steadily based on historical, cultural, and linguistic commonality, mutual respect, and strategic interests. The states in question, which became independent after the collapse of the USSR, built their bilateral ties, simultaneously forming an independent foreign policy identity and strengthening their positions in the international arena. Cooperation in the energy sector acquired special significance in bilateral relations. The signing of an agreement on cooperation in the oil and gas industry in 1996, as well as the 2006 agreement on the transportation of Kazakh oil through the Caspian Sea and the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, became breakthrough steps in bilateral relations. Kazakhstan received a reliable route for the export of its hydrocarbons, and Azerbaijan received a strategic partner in the development of its transit infrastructure. The article analyzes the development of bilateral relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Kazakhstan in the period from 1993 to 2013. The key stages of cooperation in the political, economic, energy, and humanitarian spheres are considered. Based on the study of diplomatic initiatives and economic indicators, the main factors that contributed to the development of mutually beneficial cooperation and the formation of a solid base for further interaction between the two countries are identified. The article highlights the main achievements and significant agreements that laid the foundation for further strategic interaction in the 21st century. The work uses the methods of comparative historical analysis, a systems approach, as well as elements of content analysis of official documents and speeches. The analysis of bilateral relations is based on the study of political, economic, and cultural aspects of cooperation between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, with the involvement of both official sources and scientific literature. The work analyzes the key interstate treaties between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, which made it possible to identify the legal basis and institutional mechanisms for cooperation between the two countries. In conclusion, it is emphasized that relations between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan in the period under review were characterized by stable growth and deepening of multi-level interaction, which created a solid foundation for a long-term mutually beneficial alliance. Prospects for further development of the partnership are associated with the implementation of joint infrastructure and energy projects, as well as with strengthening coordination on topical issues of regional security and sustainable development. Thus, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan continue to form a model of constructive cooperation based on common interests, historical and cultural ties.
Copyright (c) 2025 S. Jabbarova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Results of the study of the burial of the late Middle Ages in the Nurinsky district of the Karaganda region
The consolidation of the Mongol tribes in the early 13th century under the leadership of Genghis Khan was of crucial importance for the population of the Eurasian continent. In a rather short period of time, the Mongol Empire was created by military means, stretching from Eastern Europe in the west to the Sea of Japan in the east. Subsequently, with the beginning of the spread of Islam and its adoption as the state religion in the Golden Horde, the traditional way of life of the autochthonal population began to change. These events naturally affected Central Kazakhstan, where they found a multifaceted reflection in the monuments of the 13th – 1st half of the 15th centuries. The article publishes the results of the study of the Izendy-6 burial ground. The structure had a stone howe measuring 7.9 x 7.3 m and contained an intact burial in an underground pit, accompanied by items of weapons, horse equipment, as well as household items. The arrowhead found is somewhat atypical for the monuments of the Golden Horde period. Its direct typological analogues are known in the materials of the Srostkin culture of the Priobsky plateau, attributed by researchers to its Shadrintsev stage, dating from the 2nd half of the 10th – 1st half of the 11th centuries. Obviously, this type of arrowheads continued to be used in the Golden Horde period, although the main form was products with a flat penetrating part. The discovered earring in the form of a "question mark" is characteristic of the Kipchak (Polovtsian) population and is a cultural marker. Their spread since the 12th century practically coincides with the next significant event – the acquisition of ethnopolitical dominance in steppe Eurasia by the Kipchaks in the 11th century. The analysis of the osteological material showed that the bones belong to an immature individual aged 9-12 years. Gender remains uncertain due to the limited expression of morphological features at this age. Signs of a healed fracture of the left humerus were revealed, as well as a moderate asymmetry of the massiveness of the bones on the left side of the body, which may indicate adaptive changes associated with recovery from injury or individual growth characteristics. According to the results of radiocarbon dating, the age of the burial at 2s is determined within the last third of the 13th – the end of the 14th centuries. However, taking into account the analogies to the products (especially the arrowhead), we consider it possible to critically consider the data of radiocarbon analysis and date the studied burial at the Izendy-6 burial ground to the end of the 12th – end of the 13th centuries.
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Kukushkin , E. Dmitriev, A. Raisova, A. Tishkin , A. Maken https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Reconstructing the Biography of Noyon Ket-Buga of the Naiman Tribe
This article examines the identity of Noyon Ket-Buga of the Naiman tribe and his affiliation with a specific Chinggisid ulus. The narrative concerning the death of Chinggis Khan’s son Jochi, and the account of how Ket-Buga informed him of this event – preserved in Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Nogai folklore – emerged during the Golden Horde period. The most complete and earliest version of this story is the Nogai one. It displays direct parallels with the version found in Mirza Ulugh Beg’s Ulus-i Arba-yi Chingizi, which suggests that the author had access to a Golden Horde historical source. While this written source did not name the individual or his tribal affiliation, the consistent mention of Ket-Buga in all three folkloric versions, and his identification as a Naiman in the version most closely aligned with Ulugh Beg’s account (the Nogai version), supports the conclusion that there once existed a variant of the narrative in the Golden Horde wherein a Naiman named Ket-Buga informed Chinggis Khan of his eldest son's death. Genealogies of the Naiman indeed mention a figure named Ket-Buga, identified as either the son or grandson of the legendary tribal founder, Naiman. Based on generational estimates in various genealogies, this individual likely lived during the Golden Horde period. The only Ket-Buga of the Naiman tribe documented in written sources is the famous general who died in battle against the Mamluks of Sultan Qutuz at Ain Jalut in 1260. A central problem in identifying this military commander with the Ket-Buga of folklore and Naiman genealogies is that, according to Persian historians, this commander served under Hülegü. Given the deep hostility between Hülegü (a son of Tolui) and the Jochids – which led to war in the early 1260s – it is difficult to reconcile Ket-Buga’s association with Jochi, implied in the folklore, with his alleged loyalty to Hülegü. However, analysis of written sources reveals that the tradition of Ket-Buga as Hülegü’s loyal general was shaped by Ilkhanid historiography. These historians aimed to obscure the fact that Hülegü’s territories were initially intended to be a collective Chinggisid domain, with the Jochids enjoying a dominant role. Only through an alliance with Khubilai and the physical elimination of Jochid princes, their armies, and vassals during the winter of 1261–1262 did Hülegü secure full control over Iran, Iraq, and Anatolia, which thereafter became hereditary Ilkhanid territory. On the other hand, a report from the History of Herat, along with a number of indirect references, suggest that Ket-Buga was a noyon subordinate to the Jochids. Further supporting this interpretation is the fact that Noyon Baidar, who served under Ket-Buga’s command, was killed during the anti-Jochid purges of the winter of 1261–1262
Copyright (c) 2025 А. Porsin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Formation of the Passport System in the Karaganda Region during the 1930s
This study presents an institutional and socio-historical analysis of the formation of the Soviet passport system with particular focus on its implementation in the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (KASSR), specifically in the Karaganda region, which held strategic importance in the USSR’s plans for industrialization and labor mobilization. The introduction of a unified passport system in 1932 became part of a sweeping bureaucratic transformation of the Soviet state aimed at comprehensive demographic registration, filtration of migration flows, and population selection based on labor utility. Drawing on archival materials‒including documents from GASKO, GAKO, RGASPI, and GARF—the research traces the normative evolution of the passport campaign and its local mechanisms of execution. Marked by rapid industrial growth, the establishment of camp infrastructure (Karlag), and influxes of special settlers and spontaneous migrants, the Karaganda region emerged as a site for experimental implementation of registration and control policies. Even prior to the official launch of passportization, schemes of registration, address bureaus, fees for residence permits, temporary identity documents, and sanctions against the “nonproductive element” were developed. The study illustrates how administrative acts and local council resolutions materialized into operative models of control: alphabetized registration, appointment of commandants, paid residence registration, and enforcement of penalties for non-compliance. Special attention is paid to the social stratification caused by the division between “passport holders” and the “passportless,” the latter effectively excluded from legal frameworks and deprived of access to employment, housing, and mobility. The work reveals the repressive capacity of the passport system: arbitrary arrests, denial of documents based on social status, delays in issuance, and citizen complaints to the prosecutor’s office. Passportization appears not only as a tool of registration but also as a technological instrument of governance impacting identity, citizenship status, and social mobility. The analysis suggests that the passport system operated as a mechanism of political-administrative segregation: separating the population into “documented” and “undocumented,” with the latter losing access to housing, labor, and legal recognition. Repressive elements were accompanied by normative adjustments, including exceptional cases of passport issuance as a reward. In conclusion, the experience of the Karaganda region reflects the structural contradictions of Soviet passport policy, which blended modernization ambitions with exclusionary and disciplinary practices under conditions of authoritarian industrialization. Thus, passportization in the KASSR emerges as a phenomenon uniting the goals of modernization with instrumentalized mechanisms of exclusion. The study uncovers the administrative logic of total surveillance and local variations of implementation amid authoritarian industrial expansion.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ye. Sailaubay, К. Alimgazinov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The History of Moghul – Oirat Relations (from the Mid-14th to the Early 16th Century)
The history of the Moghulistan state remains an underexplored area of study in medieval historiography, despite its significant role in understanding the political, economic, and cultural processes that shaped Central Asia in the post-Mongol era. This article analyzes the political, ethnic, and economic relations between the Moghuls and the Oirats from the mid-14th to the early 16th century. The main goal of the study is to identify and systematize information on the nature of interactions between these two major nomadic confederations. To achieve this goal, the authors used key historical sources such as Persian works Zafar-nama by ‘Ali Yazdi, Tarikh-i Rashidi by Muhammad-Haidar, the Chagatai work Babur-nama by Babur, the Chinese chronicle Ming Shi, and the Mongolian chronicle Erdeniin Tobchi by Sagang Sechen. In addition, modern scholarly literature on the political and cultural history of the region was reviewed. The research is based on descriptive, comparative-historical, and source-critical methods, allowing for a more nuanced view of Moghul–Oirat interactions. The findings reveal that their relations were complex and often contradictory. Alongside frequent military conflicts, there were also periods of peaceful coexistence, alliances, and ethno-cultural exchange, which illustrate the multifaceted nature of their interaction. One of the key causes of tension was the struggle for control over strategic trade routes – especially the region of Hami, a crossroads of major caravan paths – highlighting both economic and political stakes. Special attention is given to the ethno-religious factors, such as the migration of Moghul tribes to the Oirats in the 15th century. Some scholars interpret this as a result of presumed shared ancestry. Furthermore, internal religious divisions among the Oirats played a role in fueling conflict, culminating in the 1472 raid on Moghulistan. In conclusion, the study of Moghul–Oirat relations provides valuable insights into the complexity of historical developments in Central Asia. It contributes to a broader understanding of the mechanisms of nomadic state-building and regional politics in the post-Mongol period. This topic holds great potential for future comparative research on steppe empires across Eurasia and offers a richer insight into the region’s medieval past.
Copyright (c) 2025 S. Akhmetkul, G. Zhapekova, Z. Dzhandosova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Towards the study of the culture of early nomads of Zhetysu: results of traceological and archaeozoological analysis of materials from the settlement of Sharyn
The article presents the results of archaeological research at the Sharyn settlement in the Sarytogai tract, located within the Sharyn National Park in the Uygur district of Almaty region, which is one of the largest Early Iron Age sites in Zhetysu. The relevance of the study lies in the need to reconstruct the economic and cultural type of the local population and to identify the specifics of cultural contacts between Zhetysu, Central Kazakhstan, and the Altai. The research aimed to determine the economy and way of life of the Sharyn population through the combined use of traditional archaeological methods and interdisciplinary approaches. The objectives included the analysis of the ceramic assemblage, the functional identification of stone tools through use-wear analysis, and the archaeozoological study of animal bone remains. The hypothesis suggested that the population engaged in animal husbandry and agriculture, applied diverse tools in economic and domestic activities, and maintained cultural contacts with neighboring regions, as reflected in the material culture. The results demonstrated that the diversity of ceramic forms and ornamentation indicates active interregional interactions; use-wear analysis of stone tools revealed their application in agriculture, construction, and daily life; and archaeozoological analysis of 692 animal bones established the predominance of small ruminants (50.9%) along with a significant role of cattle and horse breeding. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the first comprehensive application of use-wear and archaeozoological analyses to the materials of the Sharyn settlement, which made it possible to reconstruct economic practices and identify the specific features of local traditions within the broader framework of interregional cultural connections in the Early Iron Age.
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Chotbaev , A. Yerzhanova, M. Shagirbayev , D. Botanov , A. Bagytzhan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Genesis of Kazakh jewelry art: history, development, and cultural influence
The article examines the evolution of Kazakh jewelry art from its early stages to the present day, emphasizing its historical roots, cultural continuity, and symbolic meaning. Jewelry traditions in Kazakhstan developed under the influence of historical processes, cultural exchanges, and religious beliefs. Particularly significant were the Scythian animal style and the Hun-Sarmatian polychrome style, which enriched artistic practices with zoomorphic, plant, and geometric motifs. Later, Islamic culture introduced new artistic directions and transformed the symbolic system of jewelry. The research is based on archaeological and ethnographic sources, as well as museum collections (National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Central State Museum, Sh. Ualikhanov Museum “Altyn Emel,” and the State Reserve Museum “Esik”). Archaeological evidence includes golden artifacts from burial mounds in Esik, Katartobe 1, and Koktuma (Almaty region). Ethnographic materials reveal the technological features of jewelry-making, decorative compositions, and their symbolic functions. In Kazakh culture, jewelry has always been more than adornment. It served as a carrier of social status, spiritual values, and protective functions. Ornamental designs and animal images reflected the worldview of the people, their connection to nature, and their understanding of life and society. Retaining aesthetic expressiveness and philosophical depth, Kazakh jewelry art has preserved continuity across centuries, becoming a vital element of cultural heritage. Precious metals such as gold and silver have been known in Kazakhstan since ancient times. Archaeological finds indicate their use as early as the Bronze Age, when metallurgy reached a high level, enabling the creation of both utilitarian and decorative items. Jewelry and ritual objects from this period reflect the technological skill and artistic imagination of ancient peoples. Earrings, bracelets, rings, and diadems made of gold and silver, discovered at archaeological sites, testify to the dual role of jewelry as ornament and symbol of power, wealth, and spirituality. In funerary contexts, precious metal items played a ritual function, serving as protection for the deceased and as symbols of passage to the afterlife. Their use illustrates the deep interconnection of art, social structure, and spiritual beliefs. These practices, evolving over time, formed the foundation of a distinctive jewelry tradition that continues to hold cultural significance. Thus, Kazakh jewelry art embodies a synthesis of ancient artistic styles, technological achievements, and spiritual values, preserving its heritage while adapting to new cultural influences.
Copyright (c) 2025 G. Bilyalova , A. Aitbaeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Protest sentiments and survival strategies of the kazakh population in the 1929-1930s: behavioral motives and forms of resistance
This article examines the forms of social and political reaction of the Kazakh population to the policy of the Soviet government in the 1929-1930s. During this period, mass collectivization, dispossession of kulaks, forced settlement of nomads and strict tax policy were carried out, which led to significant changes in the traditional way of life of the Kazakhs. As aresult of increasing State pressure, many families were forced to leave their native lands and move to neighboring regions or abroad, mainly to China, Mongolia and CentralAsia. These mass migrations became the most vivid expression of passive, yet desperate, resistance. The concept of "otkochevka," traditionally used in Soviet terminology to denote seasonal movements of the nomadic population, was, in the period under study, employed to replace the notions of "flight" or "forced migration." This semantic substitution helped conceal the true scale of violence and the humanitarian catastrophe that accompanied the forced modernization and destruction of the traditional Kazakh way of life. The article analyzes the main reasons for the counterstand of the population, including the economic ruin of the population, mass starvation, and forced confiscation of property and violation of the rights of traditional society. The aim of the article is to research the behavioral motives of refugees are also considered, including the desire to protect the life and socio-cultural identity in conditions of strict state control. The state authorities interpreted the mass exodus of the population not just as a natural phenomenon, but as the result of inciting by the kulaks, the bais and counterrevolutionary elements. This served as the basis for strengthening punitive measures against the migrants. Based on archival data and historiographical analysis, the scale of migrations as a form of passive resistance, their socio-demographic consequences and impact on the further development of Kazakh society are investigated. The authors emphasize that mass migrations were a forced phenomenon caused not by class struggle, as claimed by Soviet propaganda, but by the desire of the population to survive in conditions of state terror. The disruption of the traditional way of life and state pressure in the form of forced sedentarization, collectivization, dekulakization, and grain procurement policies pushed the population to the brink of hunger and despair, forcing many to seek refuge beyond the borders of the Кepublic. The results obtained allow for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of society's adaptation to crisis situations and a revision of traditional approaches to the study of the socio-political history of Kazakhstan in the first half of the 20th century. Keywords: collectivization; repression; Semipalatinsk district; USPA (United State Political Administration); exaction; migration; behavioral motives; adaptation
Copyright (c) 2025 В. Atantayeva, R. Akhmetova, Т. Shcheglova, А. Bоtаbеkоvа https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Steppe Region as the “Other Russia” in the Thought of the Kazakh Intelligentsia of the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
This article examines the intellectual construction of the Steppe Region through the writings of prominent Kazakh intellectuals – scholars, political activists, educators, and publicists – as well as through the discourse of the Russian-educated elite in the region. Employing an interdisciplinary framework that incorporates methodologies from new cultural-intellectual history and new biographical history, the study reveals how Kazakh conceptualizations of the Steppe evolved into a complex, multidimensional mental construct. This construct reflected the interplay of competing discourses from various communities, including imperial authorities at both central and regional levels. Building upon historiographical traditions from the second half of the 20th to the early 21st century, the article demonstrates that the identity of the Kazakh intelligentsia – descendants of the titled steppe aristocracy who became enmeshed in imperial “population politicsˮ – underwent a profound transformation. Initially shaped by Russian political structures, educational institutions, and intercultural exchange, this elite developed a dual identity that positioned the Steppe as an organic extension of Russia, albeit a distinct one – a space where sedentary Russian and nomadic Kazakh cultures intersected. However, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, traumatic experiences of bureaucratic discrimination and land dispossession prompted a shift toward a hybrid identity. This new self-perception led Kazakh intellectuals to reimagine the Steppe as “the other Russiaˮ – a nostalgic vision of a “lost homelandˮ or “paradise lost.ˮThe article argues that this reconceptualization was accompanied by the development of passive resistance strategies. Kazakh intellectuals increasingly advocated for national unity and subtle forms of defiance, such as the rejection of state-imposed social norms and administrative conventions. The political radicalization following the 1905–1907 Revolution further accelerated this process, as Kazakh intellectuals engaged more closely with Russian political exiles and separatist thinkers. These interactions infused the image of the Steppe with explicitly anti-imperial meaning, transforming it from a peripheral colonial space into a potential site of national revival. By analyzing personal correspondence, publicistic writings, and institutional records, the study illuminates how Kazakh intellectuals navigated their position between imperial integration and national self-assertion. Their evolving discourse not only reflected broader trends in anti-colonial thought but also laid the ideological groundwork for later nationalist movements. The article thus contributes to ongoing debates about empire, identity formation, and decolonization in Central Asia, offering new insights into the complex interplay between intellectual history and political resistance in the late Tsarist period.
Copyright (c) 2025 Zh. Absattarovа, М. Utegenov, Zh. .Mazhitova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Secondary specialized educational institutions of culture and art of Kazakhstan during the Great Patriotic War. 1941-1945s.: the structure and dynamics
The article is devoted to the study of new pages in the history of secondary specialized educational institutions of culture and art in Kazakhstan during the war years using the example of two educational institutions. The purpose of the work is to conduct a historical and systematic analysis of the historical experience of training cultural and artistic personnel in secondary specialized educational institutions, which, due to historical, socio-economic conditions, were the main centers of professional training of specialists in the field of culture and art of the Republic. The main focus of the article is on the analysis of quantitative and qualitative changes in the dynamics of educational institutions; identification of the results achieved in difficult wartime conditions; identification of the invaluable contribution of the evacuated outstanding representatives of the art of the Union republics in the training of personnel in secondary specialized educational institutions of culture and art in the republic. The article also analyzes the process of the creation of the first higher educational institution of art in the republic the Almaty State Conservatory named after Kurmangazy that was organized on the basis of the Muzkhorkombinat, one of the two secondary specialized educational institutions that are the subject of the study. During the analysis of a wide range of archival documents and historical evidence, the origins, structure and dynamics of the activities of educational institutions in the difficult socio-economic situation of wartime, their participation in training specialists for cultural and art institutions, replenishment of Kazakh music, theater and fine arts of the republic with new topics and works are considered. In addition, the names of the students - future masters of art of the republic and the union are revealed. The influence of objective and subjective factors on the dynamic indicators of the student contingent, the proportion of Kazakh students in educational institutions, and the reasons for the significant quantitative gap between students of Kazakh youth and other ethnic groups are disclosed. Educational institutions that were united with each other due to the military situation, thanks to the joint efforts and tireless work of central and local authorities and departments, the management and the entire staff of educational institutions successfully coped with the difficulties of the war. The authors express the hope that the presented work, dedicated to the 80th anniversary of the Victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, will help to reveal new pages of the history of professional educational institutions of the republic and will serve to preserve historical memory for future generations.
Copyright (c) 2025 S. Baidildina Fellan, A. Abdiraiymova, Y. Djarkinbayev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Reframing Kazakhstan’s History in European Historiography: Perspectives from French, German, and Italian Traditions
European scholarly research has been instrumental in enhancing our comprehension of Kazakhstan's and Central Asia's historical development. This article analyzes the contributions of contemporary French, German, and Italian scholars to the study of the historiography of Kazakhstan's history while also providing a broader context for the academic activities of European researchers. The focus on French, German, and Italian scholars is due to their strong academic traditions in studying imperial and Soviet history. The article briefly outlines the development of national historiographical schools in these European countries. Particular attention is given to the second half of the 20th century, when, alongside academic Oriental Studies, a politicized and ideologically driven field known as Sovietology emerged, influencing the study of Kazakhstan’s history. Following the collapse of the USSR, regional studies developed, and Kazakhstan ceased to be viewed solely as part of a larger structure, whether imperial or Soviet, and became an independent research subject. This shift significantly impacted both research topics and methodological approaches, shaping contemporary European historical scholarship. The article primarily focuses on the works of contemporary authors who have been particularly active in recent years in publishing on the history of Kazakhstan, frequently conducting extensive research in Kazakhstani archives, teaching at local universities, and engaging in sustained academic collaboration with Kazakhstani colleagues. The research consists of three main sections, each dedicated to analyzing modern historiography in France, Germany, and Italy. Using historiographical analysis, each section examines the formation of national historiographical schools, disciplinary approaches, key scholars, established narratives, interpretative frameworks, and dominant research themes. French scholars such as Marlène Laruelle and Thierry Zarcone have studied Kazakhstan’s religious traditions and socio-cultural evolution, while Isabelle Ohayon has explored its Soviet-era transformations. German scholar Robert Kindler has made a significant contribution to the study of the 1930s famine in Kazakhstan. Additionally, Kindler and Sophie Roche have analyzed migration processes and the personal histories of ethnic Germans, thereby examining Germany’s historical ties with Kazakhstan. Italian scholars such as Niccolò Pianciola and Beatrice Penati have significantly contributed to economic and environmental history research in the region. This study also evaluates the role of key academic institutions, such as INALCO in France and Humboldt University in Germany, in shaping European research on Kazakhstan. By analyzing recent publications and historiographical trends, the authors highlight the shift from Soviet-centered narratives to interdisciplinary and locally oriented approaches. The authors conclude that European historiography offers a comprehensive and multifaceted understanding of Kazakhstan’s history, contributing to global discussions on imperial and Soviet legacies, as well as regional transformations, ultimately enriching the broader academic discourse.
Copyright (c) 2025 N. Abdinassir, S. Kovalskaya, B. Gábor https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The political, historical, and civilizational significance of the captureof Constantinople by the Turks (according to Western sources)
There have been many major global political processes and historical events in the history of mankind that have changed the course of development of the largest civilizations. One of these events was the capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453 and the fall of the Byzantine Empire, which was considered the gateway between the medieval West and the East. The military actions for the capture of Constantinople began on April 6, 1453 and ended on May 29 with the capture of the city by the Ottoman army. The capture of Constantinople marked the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire and the end of an era in the history of culture and civilization. Therefore, this topic is always considered relevant. The capture of Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, a major center of world culture and civilization, by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II on May 29, 1453 marked the beginning of a new historical period in this geography. Although the capture of the city was the result of a military war, its historical and civilizational significance was enormous. Over the years, various theories and scientific concepts have been formed in historical science regarding the capture of Constantinople and the fall of Byzantium. One of the most important events has been described as "the brutal destruction of the city by the Turks and the destruction of the Byzantine culture and civilization that had developed over thousands of years." However, new concepts and theories are currently emerging in historical science that move away from such biased views and positions and become the basis for writing true history. New research now shows that there was interaction between the Turks and Byzantine rulers on the eve of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks and the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the reasons for which are explained by various factors. One important reason for this is that the Turks repeatedly defended Byzantium from outside forces. Although the Turks captured Constantinople, Western historians describe it as a protector of the Christian peoples that were formerly part of Byzantium from outside forces. The article examines the political, historical, cultural and civilizational significance of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks based on Western sources. The prerequisites and reasons for the fall of Byzantium, as well as its course and results, are considered from a cultural point of view. The works of medieval European chroniclers and humanists contain valuable historical information about the fall of the city and the fate of Byzantium. A new scientific analysis of the findings of modern European historians and scholars working on this problem is carried out, and on this basis the historical, cultural and civilizational significance of the topic will be revealed.
Copyright (c) 2025 N. Abdukadirov, A. Shokatova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Comparative analysis of the consequences of famine in Kazakhstan in the20-30 years of the 20th century: demographic aspect
This article is devoted to the study of historical and demographic aspects of famine in Kazakhstan at the beginning of the 20th century. During this period, there were two major famines in Kazakhstan in 1921-1923 and 1931-1933. In both cases, the victims of famine number in the millions. The aim of the work is a historical and comparative analysis of the demographic consequences of two famines with a difference of ten years. The comparative analysis of hunger with the use of archival documents, census materials and statistical data, as well as the application of the method of demographic analysis of the consequences of famines, the scale of damage, and their impact on the lives of the indigenous population of the republic, are defined as research tasks. In particular, the objectives of the study included the systematization of statistical data by measurement, by period, by age, by location, by quantitative and percentage ratios, the use of a comparative method of analyzing numbers and data, drawing up a picture of the demographic situation after the two famines of the 20th century, the analysis of numerical data presented in tables and statistical schemes. A feature of the research methodology is the systematization of statistical data for both cities in various dimensions and modules. The results of the study show that the use of a comparative method to study the demographic consequences of hunger contributes to an even deeper study of this topic. However, there were a number of difficulties in writing this article. These include the fact that the population of several regions and districts is not indicated, as well as general figures in censuses conducted several years after the famine years. There are some difficulties in the data designated as human losses, such as the ratio of their share in internal and external migration, the contradiction of information provided by local authorities with official statistical authorities, the identification of unregistered cases of morbidity (death from illness or starvation), and mortality. The results of the study consist of three parts. The first and second parts consider the historical, political, and demographic aspects of the famines of 1921-1923 and 1931-1933. The third part presents a comparative analysis of the demographic losses of the two famines. According to the results obtained, it turned out that during the famine years, Kazakhs showed the highest rate of human casualties in the republic. The results obtained through qualitative analysis using statistical data served as an empirical basis for compiling a more complete demographic picture of mass famine in the 20s-30s of the 20th century in Kazakhstan.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ye. Ustagaliyev, D. Aitmagambetov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Variability of ceramics of the Nura culture (based on materials from the Taldy I burial ground in the Almaty region and the Ebety II burial ground in the Aktobe region)
This article presents an analysis of ceramic complexes found at the Taldy I burial grounds in the Almaty region and Ebety (Ebeyty) II in the Aktobe region. The uniqueness of these finds lies in their hybrid nature: they combine well-recognized features of the ceramics of the Nura culture with elements that do not fit into the existing archaeological criteria traditionally applied to this culture. A thorough study of the characteristic features of Nura ceramics in these complexes revealed the clear presence of features indicating active interaction with the Begazy-Dandybay culture. Until now, the Almaty and Aktobe regions have traditionally not been included in the distribution area of the Nura culture. The data obtained make it possible to significantly expand the geographical boundaries of this culture, offering a new perspective on its distribution and influence. The archaeological material discovered as a result of the excavations has enormous historical and cultural value and is important for reconstructing the complex cultural and historical processes that took place in these regions in ancient times, and allows us to better understand the dynamics of the development of ancient societies. In the studied territories, we may be dealing with local variants of Nura ceramics, influenced by the Begazy-Dandybay culture. This assumption is confirmed by the presence of cup-shaped, spherical, pot-shaped, jar-shaped and other vessel shapes in one complex, which is not typical for the "pure" Nura culture. Among them, special attention is paid to the vessels on the pallet. In addition to the shapes, these differences also manifest themselves in the mixing of ornamental motifs. Among the geometric ornaments, there are decorations inherent in the later Begazy-Dandybay period, including such elements as "pearls", zigzag lines and "claw" ornaments, the presence of grooves, inclined, chaotic lines, vertical and horizontal lines, and meanders made with various techniques. Triangular and round, as well as finger indentations, drawing lines, creating patterns and borders based on them, in addition, vessel profiles with smooth outlines, combined with sharp-edged vessels, as well as the presence of polished ceramic surfaces, make it possible to trace complex processes of cultural exchange, and possibly even migration. Meanwhile, the possibility of chronological coexistence of the final stages of the Nura culture and the early stages of the Begazy-Dandybai culture cannot be ruled out. This symbiosis of traditional and innovative elements in the ceramic complexes of Taldy I and Ebety II poses new challenges for researchers, opening up new horizons for the interpretation of ancient cultural processes. Further studies of these regions will undoubtedly deepen our understanding of the complex archaeological picture of the regions of Kazakhstan.
Copyright (c) 2025 Zh. Smailov, G. Kulmaganbetova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/